Antipredator behavior:Reading:What is an adaptive potential reason for butterflies emerging mayflies to come together inlarge groups? What is some experimental evidence that supports this hypothesis for mayflies?Dliution hypotehsis: In mayflies, compare # of bodies of females that die after egglaying and were not predated with # of pupal cases (# emerged) to estimate predation. The more females emerged on a given day, the less chance any given female was eaten. What experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that the choice of background and orientation of Catocala moths is adaptive?The pale moths select birch trees, and orient according to striations in the bark. Pictures of moths in this orientation and against birch are less detected by jays in the lab trained to detect themDescribe an adaptation of skipper caterpillars to avoid predation by predators using odor as a cue.Shoot their poop away using hydraulic pressure. If experimentally include fecal pellets in rolled-up leaf refuges, predatory wasps detect more easily. How could individual monarch butterflies benefit from tasting bad to birds?Birds may briefly grab wing, not like the taste, and let go. What is the evidence that BOTH te pattern on the winngs of tephritid houseflies AND thebehavior of waving the wings are necessary to avoid predation by jumping spiders? Tephritid flies with clear housefly wings that they wave are eaten more, houseflies with tephritid wings that they do not wave are eaten more, tephritids with their ownwings glued back on are eaten less. What is a hypothesis explaining why animals scream when they are captured? How has this been tested? What is an alternative hypothesis?Attracts other predators; screams warn other individualsExplain how optimality theory can apply to antipredator behavior in bobwhite quail.Covey size confers maximum antipredator benefits, balanced with cost of increased competition.How does the idea of a ‘selfish herd’ fit into game theory? Give an example.Behavior dep on behavior of others. Ex: penguins wait until others ready to go into water when seals are around- dilution Thought question: According to game theory, does an animal need to be aware of the costs and benefits of its behavior? Lecture:What is crypsis?blending into the background by camouflage or hidingWhat are the neural mechanisms a cuttlefish uses to blend into the background?They have chromatophores that are under muscular control. When the chromatophores expand, the area of skin becomes darker.By controlling chromatophores across their bodies, cuttlefish can assume colors and patterns that resemble many different substrates.Describe an experiment in stonefly nymphs that supports the hypothesis that behavioral crypsis protects the nymphs from predators. Draw a graph to illustrate the experiment.The nymphs are dark in color, and when given a choice between dark and light tiles to rest on in an aquarium, the nymphs choose dark tiles more- but only during the day!Moreover, a natural predator of the nymphs, rainbow trout, is able to find and eat the nymphs better when they are on light than on dark tiles. (Nymphs on dark tiles are more fit)How do nothern watersnakes and cockroaches 'hide' their movements in plain view?Imagine and describe a hypothetical case of olfactory crypsis, given that so many predators use olfaction to locate their prey.Describe an example of how behavior is used in combination with a chemical defense by a prey animal.Given that chemical defenses are so common in insects, how can insects that do not have chemical defenses themselves take advantage of this fact in terms of their behavior? Whatis the term describing this kind of behavior?What is autotomy and how does it help an animal escape from predators? Give an example.How can a prey animal startle or intimidate a potential predator? Does this really help theprey to escape?Describe the defensive behavioral repertoire of an animal that uses several tactics to foil predators.List the types of strategies that animals in groups can use to decrease predation. Give an example of each.If animals in a herd are diluting predators' attention, does this mean that herd animals are acting partly for the good of others in the herd?When prey animals come together in large groups, only so many can be eaten. Thus, the chance that only one animal will be eatenDescribe the alarm call 'language' of vervet monkeys and the behavioral results of different types of calls on other monkeys.For leopards, there is a barking callFor harpy eagles, there is a 2- syllable coughFor snakes, there is a ‘chutter’If you play recorded alarm calls, the monkeys will behave appropriately: they will dash to the trees for leopard warning calls, look in the air and seek cover for eagle warning calls, and stand on 2 legs and inspect the ground for snake calls.How does the 'confusion effect' work on predators?Many moving prey items may confuse predators, allowing individuals to escape.A prime example is schools of fish. 4 types of predators: cuttlefish, squid, pike, and perch, seem to hesitate more when faced with large schools of fish, due to disrupted attention on any one fish.What are some alternative adaptive hypotheses that would explain the behavior of mobbing?In meerkats (lesson 1), the sentries making alarm calls are less likely to be preyed upon. In other species that give alarm calls, the opposite is true. Can you reconcile this finding?Predator-prey coevolution study Qs:Under what conditions would you expect predators and prey to exert the most selective pressure on each other? Describe the population cycle that would allow you to make suchan assessment.Why are some of the factors that account for the decline of moose and wolves on Isle Royale this year? Will they ever rebound, or are these populations doomed to extinction?Would you predict that velvet geckos would have evolved to avoid broadhead or smalleyed snakes? Why? What would you predict regarding different groups of geckos that are allopatric or sympatric with the snakes? What experiment allowed researchers to assess their hypothesis addressing this issue? What did they measure?What evidence is there that velvet geckos have in turn exerted selective pressure on snakebehavior?What is echolocation and how does it allow bats to catch insects?What other function do bats use ultrasound for in addition to echolocation?What types of calculations does the bat’s brain have to make about its insect target?How