Chapter 1 Intentional Learning Acquiring new knowledge through education and learning Incidental Learning Learning about the world through experience Implicit Learning Learning without conscious awareness such as social rules or the influence of advertising Approaches to Memory Research Cognitive Mechanisms of processes involved in of the learning and remembering Involves encoding learning storage knowledge and retrieval remembering Biological The neuronal mechanisms of learning and the function of various specific brain regions Developmental How memory changes across the lifespan how it develops in childhood and how it changes in older adults Applied Everyday applications of memory such as rehabilitation for memory problems or how to optimize memory performance Modal Model Assumed multiple memory structures Information from the external environment is perceived and then very briefly stored in sensory memory which is considered to be a perceptional store Information is then passed to a limited capacity short term memory Finally the information can be encoded in the unlimited long term memory more or less permanent Sensory Memory Iconic visual Echoic auditory Haptic tactile feeling Olfactory smell Short Term Memory vs Working Memory STM Sensory stores feed into STM where a limited amount of information can be rehearsed for temporary storage Ex Looking up a phone number WM Mental workspace linked to attention where information within STM can be manipulated providing a basis of thought Ex Remember Now add Report Long Term Memory Explicit Memory with conscious awareness Episodic Memory of specific events Semantic Knowledge of the world Implicit Memory that does not require conscious awareness Conditioning Automatic response to stimuli Motor Skills Example is playing tennis Priming Influence of previous experience on behavior Chapter 2 Ebbinghaus s Studies Short Term Memory distraction at any given time Interference information Distributed Practice Results in greater retention Ex Repeating a list 3 times each hour for 3 hours is better than repeating the list 9 times in a row Savings Even when things are not accessible later on learning shows a benefit over time Duration Seconds to unlimited depending on continued rehearsal and Capacity Limited a small amount of information can be maintained in STM Millers Magical Number 7 2 Chunking organizing individual components into meaningful larger units Proactive Previously learned information interferes with memory for new Retroactive Newly learned information interferes with memory for previously learned information Verbal Short Term Memory A phonological loop with two subcomponents Short term store Limited in capacity sound or phonological code items decay within a few seconds unless rehearsed Articulatory rehearsal process Saying the word or digit to oneself aloud or subvocally serves to refresh the memory traces in the short term store Irrelevant Sound Interference Articulatory Suppression Interferes with verbal short term memory saying lalala or any sound interferes with verbal short term memory Double Dissociation Critical evidence for showing that two types of memory are actually distinct and are mediated by different brain regions When will we make errors Errors will increase when the task includes information that comes close to or exceeds the limited capacity of short term memory Also when rehearsal is disrupted by distractions or when the information is constantly updated with similar information Proactive Interference Real World Implications of Working Memory PIN numbers SSN Bank Accounts Passwords Phone Numbers Internet Addresses Three Types of Short Term Memory Verbal Short term memory for language related information based on an auditory or phonological code and sensitive to disruption by articulatory suppression Visual Short term memory for visual images of patterns or objects based on a visual code and disrupted by other information Spatial Short term memory for where object are in space and the spatial relationships among objects disrupted by other spatial information or even by simple eye movements Chapter 3 Working Memory An active workspace for problem solving and manipulating information It is like the control tower of an airport The multicomponent model Central Executive An attentionally driven system that selects and manipulates material in two slave systems Phonological Loop Holds sequences of acoustic speech based items Visual Spatial Sketchpad Holds visually and or spatially encoded items and arrays Dual Tasking Each slave system is separate allows us to do some tasks together with little or no decrement in performance Visual Visual or Verbal Verbal will interfere but Visual Verbal will not Creating error free performance Dual Tasking when is it safe Analyze tasks based on a Amount of information required b Amount of computation required c Verbal Visual Spatial overlap The central executive Where integration of information from the two slave systems is attended to controlled manipulated information is worked on System that coordinated multiple tasks not just simple retention of lists of items but keeping items in mind using phonological and visual spatial slave systems while performing other tasks Both span and control processes required Supervisory Attentional System SAS Used when tasks are novel or require more executive control Chapter 4 Ways to optimize learning The time you spend Learning is linearly related to the time spent studying the material originally Distributed practice Better to distribute your study or practice sessions across time days rather than massing them together in a single block The generation effect Generating the material yourself leads to more efficient learning and better remembering later on Expanding Retrieval Test yourself early and at spaced intervals so that you focus on generating the materials Motivation Threat Payoff Social and Interest Threat usually has a negative impact on learning except when learning fear conditioning Payoffs Do increase performance if perceived as substantive immediate and attainable Social experimental demand characteristics achievement motivation young vs older adults Interest Probably the most motivating factor when material to be learned is relevant to your personal experience and engaging Optimizing Arousal Study and read at your optimal time of day play at your non optimal time of day Chapter 4 Part II Implicit Rule Learning Structures such as