Child Psychology1/14/14Recurring issues/themes in developmental psychology- Continuity/discontinuityo How well can developmental outcomes be predicted from early life?- Active/passive childo What role do children have in their own development- Nature/nurtureo How do heredity and environment influence development?1/21/14Measurement in child development research- Approacheso Systematic observation Naturalistic observation Structured observationo Sampling behavior with taskso Self-report (parent-or-teacher-report)o Physiological response measurement Heart rate; cortisol measures, brain activity- Measurement methodso Reliabilityo Validity- Representative samplingo Populationso SamplesGeneral Design for research- Research design: correlational researcho View relations as they exist in the worldo Correlation coefficient Closer to 1 or -1, strong relationship.  Farther from 1/-1, weak relationship Correlation does not imply causation! - First variable may cause the second variable- Second may cause the first- Neither variable is caused by the other ;both are caused by a third, unmeasured variable- Research design: Experimental studieso Experiments systematically manipulate key variables selected by investigator Independent and dependent variable Equivalent groups created through random assignment; equivalent in all respects except for manipulated independent variable If groups differ in dependent variable, conclude that the manipulated independent variable is the causeo Field experiments (natural setting)o Quasi-experiments (“almost” experiments) Independent variable is a “subject” variable; groups not created through random assignment; non-equivalent groups (more difficult to isolate independent variables as a causeo Age-Related changes Longitudinal design- Impaired memory functions in low-birth-weight infants; same children tested at age , again at age 3 Micro genetic study Cross-sectional design- Specialized face processing during infancy; cross-sectional samples or 3, 6, and 9 month old infants. (tested them all at the same period of time) Longitudinal-sequential studies1/30/14Genetics- Genotypes and Phenotypeso Freckles: Alleles are carried on one of the autosomes (first 22 chromosomes) Freckles are a dominant trait “Dave” is heterozygous (one dominant allele, one recessive allele)- Genetic and Environmental influences in Developmento Behavior genetics research Polygenic inheritance- Phenotypes reflect combined activity of many genes Family study comparisons- Compare individuals who vary in their genes and environments:o Twins, regular siblings, parents and children, children: adoptive and biological parento Genes and environment: paths from genes to behavioro Types of similarity Rate of concordance (if one twin has disorder, what is chance that other twin will too?) Correlations (MZ and DZ twins)- Paths from Genes to Behavior: Three themeso 1: Heredity and environment interact dynamically throughout development Epigenesis: continual interplay between genes and environment that drivesdevelopment- Prenatal development: all cells contain the same DNA, yet different cells take on different properties and functions. Local environment plays a role- Mothering effects: rats with less-nurturing moms differ in their response to stress form rats raised with more-nurturing moms Hereditability- extent to which differences between people are due to heredity - Little variation in environment, heritability is high- More variability in environment, heritability is lowo 2: Genes help to determine the kinds of experiences that children have Temperamental characteristic influenced by the genes passed from parent to child Infant behavior influenced caretaker behavior, in a way that creates a “match” between the child’s genetic characteristics and the caretaking environment  Sociability is a heritable trait When genes and environments match, they mutually support one another in determined the course of the child’s development o 3: Non-shared environmental influences make children within a family different Shared influences: those that make individuals within a household similar Non-shared influences: those that make individuals within a household dissimilar Conditions likely to contribute to a unique family environment for each child: family composition, birth order, spacing between sibling, temperament, age, handicap, illness, gender2/6/14Childbirth and Newborn Infant- Prenatal Diagnosiso Ultrasoundo Amniocentesiso Chorionic villus sampling- The birth processo Beings during the last several weeks of pregnancy Braxton-Hicks contractions-gentle muscle contratcions at irregular intervals- Help to dilate cervix to a width of 1 to 2 centimeters- may help to move the fetus closer to the cervix - in preparation for birth Labor begins when contractions start to appear  at regular intervals about 10-20 minutes aparto Stages of labor 3 stages- 1. Opening of cervixo contractions help to efface and open the cervix to 10 cmo mean duration: about 8-14 hours for primiparous mothers; o about 6 hours for multiparous mothers - 2. Passage of infanto contractions last 60-90 seconds & come once every 2-3 o minutes; they serve to push the baby out - 3. Delivery of the placenta (afterbirth)o takes less than 1 hour in most cases, but contractions o continue for several hours to close the uteruso Approaches to childbirth Natural childbirth (minimize unnecessary medical procedures; natural methods pain relief) Prepared childbirth (childbirth classes) Childbirth with doula (supportive coach) Choice of place of birtho Adjusting to Parenthood Reorganization of routines Physical and emotional reactions Postpartum depressiono Birth Complications Hypoxia- lack of oxygen Cephalopelvic disproportion Irregular position Prolapsed umbilical cord Preeclampsia (pregnancy induced hypertension) Prematurity Low birth weighto The baby at birth Faces a number of challenges Taking nutrition by mouth Regulate bodily (autonomic) functions- Regulate breathing, swallowing, temperature, digestion, heart rate Regulate responses to sensory stimulationo Newborn Assessments How do we determine if a baby is healthy and adjusting to life outside the uterus?- APGAR: vital signs in minutes following birth- Comprehensive assessments: newborn reflexes, sates or arousal/awareness,