46 scientific american mind september/October 2013miq513Dunl3p.indd 46 7/1/13 6:04 PMMind.ScientificAmerican.com SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 47ILLUSTRATIONS BY CELIA JOHNSONANDREW LILLEY iStockphoto ( blocks)Some study techniques accelerate learning, whereas others are just a waste of time—but which ones are which? An unprecedented review maps out the best pathways to knowledge BY JOHN DUNLOSKY, KATHERINE A. RAWSON, ELIZABETH J. MARSH, MITCHELL J. NATHAN AND DANIEL T. WILLINGHAMHOW WE LEARNHOW WE LEARNWHAT WORKS, WHAT DOESN’Tmiq513Dunl3p.indd 47 7/1/13 6:04 PMCognitive and educational psychologists have developed and evaluated numerous techniques, ranging from rereading to summarizing to self-testing, for more than 100 years. Some common strategies markedly improve student achievement, whereas others are time-consuming and ineffective. Yet this information is not making its way into the classroom. Teach-ers today are not being told which learning techniques are sup-ported by experimental evidence, and students are not being taught how to use the ones that work well. In fact, the two study aids that students rely on the most are not effective. One of them may even undermine success.One potential reason is that the huge amount of research is overwhelming, making it diffi cult for educators and students to identify the most practical and advantageous ways to study. To meet this challenge, we reviewed more than 700 scientifi c articles on 10 commonly used learning techniques. We focused on strategies that seem to be easy to use and broadly effective. We also took a closer look at a couple of methods that are very popular with students.To receive our recommendation, a technique must be useful in a range of learning conditions, such as whether a stu-dent works alone or in a group. It must assist learners of vari-ous ages, abilities and levels of prior knowledge—and it must have been tested in a classroom or other real-world situation. Learners should be able to use the method to master a variety of subjects, and their performance should benefi t no matter what kind of test is used to measure it. The best approaches also result in long-lasting improvements in knowledge and comprehension.Using these criteria, we identifi ed two clear winners. They produced robust, durable results and were relevant in many sit-uations. Three more are recommended with reservations, and fi v e—including two popular learning aids—are not advised, ei-ther because they are useful only in limited circumstances or because not enough evidence supports a higher rating. We en-courage researchers to further explore some of the untested techniques, but students and teachers should be cautious about relying on them.48 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND September/October 2013ducation generally focuses on what you study, such as algebra, the elements of the periodic table or how to conjugate verbs. But learning how to study can be just as important, with lifelong benefi ts. It can teach you to pick up knowledge faster and more effi ciently and allow you to retain information for years rather than days.EFAST FACTSRating the Best Ways to Study1>>Some study methods work in many different situations and across topics, boosting test performance and long-term retention. Learning how to learn can have lifelong benefi ts.2>>Self-testing and spreading out study ses-sions—so-called distributed practice— are excellent ways to improve learning. They are effi cient, easy to use and effective.3>>Underlining and rereading, two methods that many students use, are ineffective and can be time-consuming.4>>Other learning techniques need further test-ing and evaluation. In the meantime, stu-dents and teachers can put proved study methods to use in classrooms and at home.miq513Dunl3p.indd 48 7/1/13 5:54 PMMind.ScientificAmerican.com SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND 49ISTOCKPHOTO (star)THE GOLD STAR WINNERS1. SELF-TESTING Quizzing Yourself Gets High MarksHOW IT WORKS: Unlike a test that evalu-ates knowledge, practice tests are done by students on their own, outside of class. Methods might include using fl ash cards (physical or digital) to test recall or answering the sample questions at the end of a textbook chapter. Although most students prefer to take as few tests as possible, hundreds of experiments show that self-testing improves learning and retention.In one study, undergraduates were asked to memorize word pairs, half of which were then included on a recall test. One week later the students remem-bered 35 percent of the word pairs they had been tested on, compared with only 4 percent of those they had not. In an-other demonstration, undergraduates were presented with Swahili-English word pairs, followed by either practice testing or review. Recall for items they had been repeatedly tested on was 80 percent, compared with only 36 percent for items they had restudied. One theory is that practice testing triggers a mental search of long-term memory that acti-vates related information, forming mul-tiple memory pathways that make the information easier to access.WHEN DOES IT WORK? Anyone from pre-schoolers to fourth-year medical stu-dents to middle-age adults can benefi t from practice testing. It can be used for all kinds of factual information, includ-ing learning words in foreign languages, making spelling lists and memorizing the parts of fl owers. It even improves re-tention for people with Alzheimer’s dis-ease. Short, frequent exams are most ef-fective, especially when test takers re-ceive feedback on the correct answers.Practice testing works even when its format is different from that of the real test. The benefi cial effects may last for months to years—great news, given that durable learning is so important.IS IT PRACTICAL? Yes. It requires modest amounts of time and little to no training.HOW CAN I DO IT? Students can self-test with fl ash cards or by using the Cornell system: during in-class note taking, make a column on one edge of the page where you enter key terms or questions. You can test yourself later by covering the notes and answering the questions (or explaining the keywords) on the other side.RATING: High utility. Practice testing works across an impressive range of for-mats, content, learner ages and retention intervals.2. DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE For Best Results, Spread Your Study over TimeHOW IT WORKS: Students often “mass” their study—in other words, they cram. But distributing learning