Chapter 9 Study Guide: Intelligence and IQ Testing1. Individual Differences (differential psychology): Variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality and behavior; helps explain why we each respond in different ways to the same objective situation (such as an insulting comment from a boss). Entire fields of psychology, such as the study of intelligence, interests, personality, and mental illness, focus on individual differences. Differential psychology is controversial because some people interpret the concept as saying that a certain group may be inferior to others. Nature vs. Nurture: the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities (nature) versus personal experiences (nurture) in determining or causing individualdifferences in physical and behavioral traits.Eugenics: Movement in the early twentieth century to improve a population’s genetic stock by encouraging those with good genes to reproduce (positive eugenics), preventing those with bad genes from reproducing (negative genes), or both.2. Behavioral genetics is the field of study that examines the role of genetics in human behavior. This field would allow illustrate just how much of an effect genes, as opposed to our environments, have on our intelligence. Role of Shared Environment in Making People More Alike: Adoption studies and twin studies allow us to see that our environments do play a significant part in shaping our intelligences. Role of the Unshared Environment: The disparity between two members of dissimilar environment also serves as evidence for the environment’s importance in shaping intelligence. 3. Francis Galton: A prominent scientist, inventor, Charles Darwin’s cousin; believed that intelligence is the by-product of sensory capacity (people with superior sensorycapacities, like better eyesight, should acquire more knowledge than other people). Was somewhat correct; recent research suggests that some forms of sensory ability relate modestly to intelligence, although the two concepts aren’t identical.Alfred Binet: Co-developed (along with Theodore Simon) an objective psychological test that would separate slower leaners from other children without having to rely on the subjective judgments of teachers; in 1905 they developed the first intelligence test, a diagnostic tool designed to measure overall thinking ability. This intelligence test was based off measuring higher mental processes (reasoning, understanding, and judgment) rather than solely observing sensation, like Galton had done.4. Intelligence: The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills; ability to understand and use complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in abstract reasoning.Intelligence is a Theoretical Construct (hypothesized attribute to explain observable behavior): People differ in how well they do in school, their ability to advance or follow complex arguments, their ability at manipulating material in memory, etc…Definition is neither static nor universally endorsed (gravity, gene) 5. Brain volume, reaction time (negatively), and memory tests are all correlated withintelligence.6. Some researchers believe intelligence is one thing, and others believe that intelligence is multifaceted. Evidence of Intelligence as One Thing: When researchers looked at the correlations among Binet and Simon’s items (test questions), they found that thought the items were enormously different in content, the correlations among them were all positive: people who got one item correct were more likely than chance to get the others correct. Evidence of Intelligence is Multifaceted: Several prominent psychologists have argued for the existence of multiple intelligences: entirely different domains of intellectual skills; according to them, the concept of g is incomplete; states that g is only one component of intelligence. This concept is illustrated by Gardner’s Theory and Triarchic Model (Analytical, Practical, and Creative intelligence).What “g” is: g is General Intelligence, which accounts for the overall differences in intellect among people; all intelligence test items are positively correlated, because they reflect the influence of overall intelligenceGardner’s Theory: There are numerous “frames of mind”, or different ways of thinking about the world; each frame of mind is a different and fully independent intelligence in its own right. Suggested that different intelligences should make sense from an evolutionary standpoint: they should help organisms survive or make it easier for them to meet future mates. Critics state that his model is vague and difficult to test, in particular it’s not clear why certain mental abilities, but not others, qualify as multiple intelligences. Moreover, because Gardner hasn’t developed formal tests to measure his intelligences, his model is virtually impossibleto falsify (there’s no good evidence that his multiple intelligences are truly independent, as he claims). Crystalized Intelligence: The accumulated knowledge of the world we acquire over time. We rely on our crystallized intelligence to answer questions such as “What’s the capital of Italy?” or “How many justices sit on the U.S. Supreme Court?”.Knowledge from newly learned tasks “flows” into our long-term memories, “crystallizing” into lasting knowledge. Fluid Intelligence: The capacity to learn new ways of solving problems. We rely on our fluid intelligence the first time we try to solve a puzzle we’ve never seen or the first time we try to operate a type of vehicle we’ve never driven.7. IQ (intelligence quotient): German psychologist Wilhelm Stern invented the formula for IQ: divide mental age (the age corresponding to the average person’s performance on an intelligence test) by chronological age (actual age, in years) and multiply the resulting number by 100.8. Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure; one important indicator of a test’s validity is its ability to relate to outcomes measured atabout the same time test is administered (concurrent validity).Reliability: Consistency of measurement; one important type of reliability is test-retest reliability, which refers to the extent to which scores on a measure remain stable over timeTest Quality: Tests must be both reliable and valid in order to be legitimized. 9. IQ Stability: IQ scores usually remain reasonably stable in adulthood; even across