Chapter 1 Study Guide: Lectures and Readings on History and ScientificThinking1. The four different ways of knowing are: Rationalism, Tradition/Authority, Intuition, and Empiricism. The kind of “knowing” used in psychology is empirical, because it’s based off the idea that using your senses in the outsideworld leads to understanding complex issues. Basically information that we have from our senses.2. Theory Land is what’s happening in our heads, while Data Land is the outsideworld. Theory Land contains ideas, concepts, hypotheses, and theories, while Data Land contains behavior, material objects, measurement, and data. A construct is the inferred cause of measurable events or processes. An operational definition is the way in which you measure a thing (ex. how you quantify a feeling). A theory is an explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world, and its useful because it offers an account that ties multiple findings together. A hypothesis is a testable prediction derived from a scientific theory. 3. The three traditions that have characterized the field of psychology are: Experimental Psychology (people are the same), Individual Differences (people differ from one another), and Clinical Approaches (people can be helped). Experimental psychology is based off experiments to understand theLaws of Behavior. Individual Differences is based off the correlational method(how related are two things, measured on a -1.0 to +1.0 scale) in order to findmeaningful variation between people. Clinical Approaches utilize case studiesin order to improve health and social functioning. Behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience fit under the “Experimental Psychology” umbrella. Behavioral psychology is characterized by the assumption that “behavior is a function of experience”. Cognitive psychology is characterized by the assumption that “behavior is a function of internal mental processes and representations”. Neuroscience is characterized by the assumption that “behavior is a function of our biology”.4. In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt (structuralism: fundamentals of behavior such as how people analyze sound) developed the first full-fledged psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was a pioneer in the field and focused on basic questions about our mental experiences. Utilized experimental methods as well as introspection (which required observers to reflect and report on their mental experiences, such as what they saw on an apple). William James (functionalism: the purposes/meaning behind consciousness such as finding out why free will was important, or why people are religious) was the founder of functionalism, which strove to understand the functions ofthoughts, feelings and behaviors.5. JB Watson was an American psychologist who founded the psychological school of behaviorism, which focuses on uncovering the general principles of learning underlying human and animal behavior. BF Skinner was a follower of JB Watson and believed that human behavior could be comprehended by just looking outside the organism, to rewards and punishments offered by theenvironment. Neither of the two believed that “peer[ing]” into the mind was necessary in order to figure out why humans act as they do. 6. Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who viewed psychology from the perspective of a cognitivist. Cognitive psychology argued that human thinkingaffects behavior in a strong way. 7. Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, was a scientist who created the concept of correlation and coined the term “nature versus nurture”. Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who invented the first intelligence test (IQ Test). These two individuals were associated with experimental psychology and eugenics (the effort to improve a population’s “genetic stock” by encouraging people with “good genes” to reproduce, by discouraging people with “bad genes” from reproducing, or both. Binet’s IQ test led to the idea that since intelligent individuals could now be uncovered, they should reproduce with others of equal intellectual levels. 8. Sigmund Freud was a Viennese neurologist who founded the field of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis focused on internal psychological processes, especially impulses, thoughts, and memories of which we’re unaware. Believed that the primary influences on behavior are unconscious drives.9. Critical thinking is a set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion. Confirmation bias is a tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them. Belief perseverance is our tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them (“don’t confuse me with the facts” effect). 10. The six principles of scientific thinking are: Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses (have important alternative explanations for the findings been excluded?), Correlation Vs. Causation (can we be sure that “A” causes “B”?), Falsifiability (can the claim be disproved?), Replicability (can the test results be duplicatedin other studies?), Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence (is the evidence as strong as the claim?), and Occam’s Razor (does a simpler explanation fit the data just as well? KISS: Keep it simple, stupid). 11. The nature-nurture debate poses the question: Are our behaviors attributable mostly to our genes (nature) or to the environments in which wegrow up (nurture)? John Locke stated that the human mind was like a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth, so according to him our environments exclusively shape us. The free will versus determinism (our actions aren’t determined by us) debate asks the question: To what extent are our behaviors freely selectedrather than caused by factors outside of our control? BF Skinner argued that our sense of free will stems from the fact that we aren’t consciously aware of the thousands of subtle environmental influences impinging on our behavior at any given