Chapter 8 Study Guide1. Reasoning and Decision Making:a. Heuristics: Mental shortcut that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world. Algorithm: step-by-step learned procedure to solve a problem. b. Inductive reasoning: takes events and makes generalizations. Deductive reasoning: arrives at a specific conclusion based on generalizations. Syllogism: Using a major premise and a minor to state something. All violinists are chefs, John is a violinist, John must be a chef. c. Normative Approach: Assumes that people will behave normally. Descriptive Approach: Looks at each situation specifically to project behavior. Base Rates: How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general population. Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them. Framing: The way a question is formulated which can influence the decisions people make. d. Representativeness heuristic: Heuristic that involves judging the probability of an even by itssuperficial similarity to a prototype. Availability heuristic: heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds. 2. Problem Solving: a. Initial State: Where you begin in a problem.Goal State: the final position of a problem you are aiming to achieve. Current State: Where you are in the present as you attempt to solve a problem. Weak Method: A method that can be applied to solving a problem you know little about. Forward Chaining: Move the current state towards the goal state. Backwards Chaining: Move the goal state towards the current state. b. Difference between experts and novice: Experts are not better because they improve at means end analysis. They simply have more domain knowledge, so they remember more solution paths from past experiences. Paradox of expertise: What you already know may keep you from seeing what is most important in a given situation. c. Salience of surface similarities: To be caught up in surface similarities, often missing important, underlying, similarities. Mental Sets: Using experience to speed the solving of a similar problem. This is often helpful, but can hinder problem solving if the problems are slightly different. Also leads to stagnated growth because new innovations are not needed. Functional Fixedness: The difficulty to realize multiple purposes of the same object. Duncker’s Candle problem: Assign someone stick a candle on the wall with tacks, candles, and a tack box. Easy if you use tack box, but hard otherwise. Many people don’t realize theycan use the box due to functional fixedness. 33. Explain the Linguistic relativity hypothesis (also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or linguistic determinism.)a. Linguistic determinism: the idea that language and its structures limit and determine humanknowledge or thought. Linguistic relativity: A view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes.b. Do labels help or hurt memory for pictures: They distort our memories to some degree, like when two circles with a line is labeled “dumbbell” we usually draw it with a longer thicker bar than it actually was. They also help our memories, as in a picture with an accurate label that makes sense of the picture will be far easier to recall than without a label. c. Conditions for a proper test of linguistic relativity: The test must have multiple languages, must have recognizable differences between the languages, must have an independent way to test for cognitive differences between speaks and then see if the differences match the differences in languages. d. Tarahumara Research: Testing linguistic relativity by comparing English speakers to Tarahumara speakers. Choose these two because our blue/green/ spans are different. In Tarahumara green, light blue, and dark blue are all under the same name. They used an odd one out test to show linguistic relativity had at least some factor because the Tarahumara speakers correctly chose the color farthest away in wavelength, while the native English speakers chose “green” because it has a different name. Why has so much linguistic relativity research been done with colors: Because colors differ between languages, making it easy to expose the differences in cognitive processes through our reactions to colors of the same exact wavelength but different in name. e. Current view of linguistic relativity: It is certainly not accepted as Whorf hoped it would be, but it is usually assumed that language does have some influence on thought. 4. Language:a. Language: Largely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols (such as words or gestural signs) in rule-based ways to create meaning. Phonemes: Category of sounds our vocal apparatus produces. Morphemes: Smallest meaningful unit of speech. Syntax: Grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings. Semantics: Meaning derived from words and sentences. Extralinguistic information: elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning. b. -They begin to recognize their mother’s native language in the womb. -In their first year, they learn the phonemes of their language and how to use their vocal apparatus. (use babbling: intentional vocalization that lacks specific meaning.)-Children understand words earlier than they can form them (their name around 6 months, other words 10-12) and then can oftentimes produce some words by their first birthdays. -Vocab expands as they get older, 200 words by age 2 and thousands by age 6. -First milestone in synactic development is the one word stage (early period of language development when children use single-word phrases to convey an entire thought.) usually reach a two word stage by their second