Chapter 3 Study Guide: Lectures and Readings of Biological Psychology1. Biological psychology is the study of neural substrates of behavior and mental processes. Basically, biological psychology is the relationship betweenthe brain and its behavior/mental processes (perception, memory, emotion/feelings, language, thought). The fundamental assumption of biological psychology is: human brains and the brains of other animals are homologous, producing some similarities in behavioral patterns. Homologous means that brains have diversified from a common blueprint, and there are very strong parallels in the blueprint between human brains and animal brains, which produces similarity.2. Human and animal brains have the same general parts, and these parts are generally located in the same place (ex: cerebellum is always at the back of the brain). Human and animal behavior is similar because everyone is motivated by rewards. Human brains are much larger in proportion to their overall body size than any other species. An animal’s behavior is much less adaptive than that of a human’s. Animals should be used in research because it allows for use of more invasive procedures, as well as provides a simplified model due to the simpler brain and behavior.3. A neuron is a nerve cell that is specialized for communication. Dendrites are the branchlike extensions of neurons that receive signals from other neurons and pass it on to the cell body. The cell body of a neuron is often called the soma. Axons are long tail-like extensions from the cell body that send signals and messages to other neurons. Axons are thin near the cell body, and this narrowness creates a trigger zone. An axon terminal is a knoblike structure atthe far end of the axon. These terminals contain synaptic vesicles, tiny spheres that contain neurotransmitters (chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate with each other). When the synaptic vesicles reach the end of the axon terminal, it bursts and releases neurotransmitters. A myelin sheath is an insulating wrapper around axons, and contains numerous gaps all the way along the axon called nodes, which help the neuron conduct electricity more efficiently. 4. When a neuron isn’t sending a signal, it is at rest, which means there are positive and negative ions on both sides of the membrane. Action potentials are abrupt waves of electric discharge triggered by a change inside the axon. Action potentials originate in the trigger zone near the cell body and continueall the way down the axon to the axon terminal. Positively charged particles flow rapidly into the axon and then rapidly flow out, causing a spike in positive charge followed by a sudden decrease in charge, with the inside charge ending up slightly more negative than the original resting value. Thesesudden shifts in charge produce a release of electricity, and when the electrical charge reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) into the synapse. An excitatory signal is produced by a certain type of neurotransmitter and its job is to excite the nervous system and increase its activity, while an inhibitory signalis sent by another type of neurotransmitter and it decreases activity in the nervous system. 5. Some similarities between neurons and other cells: have cell membranes, a nucleus, and organelles. Some differences between neurons and other cells: neurons have long processes (dendrites and an axon), they conduct electrical signals, and communicate through synapses. Plasticity describes the nervous system’s ability to change over time. Learning, life events, injuries, and illnesses affect the plasticity of our nervous system. 6. The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord and is the place where sensory information comes into – and decisions to act come out of. The CNS is divided into the Cortex, Basal Ganglia, Limbic System,Cerebellum, Brain Stem, and Spinal Cord. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of all the nerves that extend out of the CNS. The PNS is further divided into the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary behavior, and the autonomic nervous system, which controls nonvoluntary, that is, automatic functions of the body. The autonomic nervous system consists of two divisions, sympathetic and parasympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system is active during emotional arousal, especially during crises (fight-or-flight response). When we sense danger, the sympathetic nervous system increases our heart rate, produces perspiration, and increases respiration. The parasympathetic nervous system is active during rest and digestion, thusdigestive activity increases in the stomach and intestines.7. A simple reflex pathway: a girl touches a lit match (sense organ), this information then goes to a sensory neuron (neurons which carry informationfrom the body to the brain) after which it goes to motor neurons (carry information from the brain to the body), and these motor neurons inform the muscle to pull away from the burning flame. Sometimes an interneuron (neurons that send messages to other neurons nearby, located in the spine) will act as the intermediary between the sensory neurons and the motor neurons. 8. The functions of the brain are extremely integrated, and although these regions (forebrain which includes the cerebral cortex, Corpus callosum, Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Cerebellum, and brain stem) serve different functions, they cooperate seamlessly with each other to generate our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The four lobes of the cerebral cortex are theFrontal (motor function, language, and memory. Also oversees and organizes other brain functions through a process known as executive functioning, like the president of the U.S.), the Parietal (upper middle part of the cerebral cortex lying behind the frontal lobe, helps us track objects’ locations, shapes/orientations, as well as helping us to process others’ actions and represent numbers. The parietal lobe communicates visual and touch information to the motor cortex every time we reach, grasp and move our eyes), the Occipital (contains the visual cortex, which is dedicated to seeing), and the Temporal (the prime site of hearing, understanding language, and storing memories of our past). The Corpus callosum is a large band of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres (sides of the brain). The prefrontalcortex is the part of the frontal