LINGUIS 101 1st Edition Exam #2 Study Guide(This guide is to help you focus your studying. As usual, anything we covered in class could be on the exam.)The exam covers material from the Phonologysection only. There will be no direct questions about Phonetics, but of course you have to know your Phonetics well in order to do Phonology! The exam mayinclude problem solving, short answer, fill in the blank, and matching type questions.Concepts/ideas for short answer questions:- Allophone vs. phoneme, surface form vs. underlying formo Allophone- a contextually determined variant pronunciation of a phoneme. The actual surface realization of a phoneme o Phoneme- the basic underlying form of a segment in a speakers mental dictionary.Used to signal meaning contrasts o Underlying form- the abstract form that a word of morpheme is postulated to havebefore any phonological rules have applied to it - Contrastive distribution vs. complementary distributiono Contrastive distribution- two segments in contrastive distribution in a particular language if there exists a minimal pair involving those segments in the language o Complementary distribution- two segments are in complementary distribution in aparticular language if they appear in opposite (non overlapping) environments - The significance of natural classes in phonologyo A class of sounds that shares a phonetic feature or features o Phonological rules operate over natural classes - Similarities and differences between sign language and spoken language phonologyo Differences  Modality - Spoken languages- auditory vocal - Signed languages- visual gestural  Structure of words - Spoken languages- sequence of sounds, each sound has parameters- Sign languages- simultaneous articulation of parameters o Similarities  Words decomposable into smaller non meaningful elements (sign parameters)  Contrastive elements (minimal pairs)  Phonological rules  Natural classes of signs (ex: open/ closed hand position, bent/flat hand position)- Variety of evidence for the internal structure of syllables (the existence of components such as onset, coda, nucleus, and rhyme)o A syllable is made up of 3 parts  Onset- low sonority consonants before peak Nucleus- sonority peak, must be a vowel or syllabic nasal or liquid  Coda- low sonority consonants following peak o Evidence- speech errors, language games, phological rules and photactic constraints - Phonotactic constraints: what are they? Be able to give some examples.o Constraints on permissible sequences or placement of segments in a syllable - Critical Period for language acquisition. What is this period in humans (what age)? What is the evidence for the existence of a critical period?o Johnson and Newport 1989 studied the English fluency of immigrants to the U.S.,found that fluency declined with age of immigration, beginning at age 7- Berko-Gleason’s “wug” experiments and what they tell us about children’s acquisition of phonologyo Young children possess implicit knowledge of linguistic morphology, they were able to use the made up word and make it plural, never have hearing the word before and they have inferred the basic rule for forming plurals - The high amplitude sucking experiments regarding the perception of sound contrasts in infants and what they tell us about the acquisition of phonologyo Babies age 6-12 months suck on pacifier attached to sound system o Rate of sucking increased if the infant can perceive contrastso Rate of sucking stayed the same if the infant cannot perceive contrast o 6 months- babies can perceive phonetic distinctions that correspond to phonemes in all languages, 12 months they can only perceive phonetic distinctions for phonemes of their native language Be able to:- Solve a phonology problem based on data from an unfamiliar language, including:o Determine whether sounds are separate phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme If there are minimal pairs they are 2 separate phonemes, if there is no minimal pair they are allophones of the same soundo Fill in a complementary distribution charto Write a phonological rule using rule notation and phonetic features (natural classes)o Fill in a phonological derivation chart- Identify phonological generalizations about early child speech (rules describing how child speech differs from adult speech)- Syllabify words using the Maximize Onset Principle, and identify whether sounds appear in the Onset, Nucleus, Rhyme, or Coda of a