Basic Information on ItalyLong peninsulaSlightly less than 100,000 square milesNorth=AlpsSouth=Po, the largest riverEast=Apennine mountains, separate the Po valley from the rest of ItalyPeninsular Italy begins south of the Po Valley, 650 miles long and 125 miles wideFirst great centers of population were near the coastThe Bruttium mountains were where towns appeared early and became wealthy and importantWest CoastWell wateredFertile landsSupported large populationsFour rivers (Arnus, Tiberis, Liris, and Volturnus)EtruriaNorthernmostFaces the Tyrrhenian seaFertile hills, forests, lakesBounded by the Arno and tiber riversLatiumCovered the stretch of coast between the lower Tiber River and the northern limits of CampaniaRomeRise on the banks of the Tiber riverFirst appearance of agriculture around 4000 BCVillagers planted barley and wheat and raised sheep, goats, cattle, and pigsTools were made of wood, bone, or stoneAround 2000 copper tools and ornaments appearThere was a Bronze ageMycenaean pottery appears in Sardinia where copper was mined in the 14th centuryIron AgeIron has important advantages over bronzeMore commonCheaper processLeads to cheaper productsEtruria, Latium, and Campania saw the rise of an inner related group of cultures that would develop into major centers of power and wealthIron Age in those countries was known as VillanovanVillanovan CultureNew and larger settlementsClusters of huts without elaborate social systemsDistinctions in wealth, formal layouts, or public buildingsPhoeniciansLong distance trade by land and sea was important in the social and political order of a Phoenician city stateKings and temple priesthoods participated in tradeTyre and Sidon were the most powerful of the Phoenician statesBegan to send out settlers and trading expeditions and established a series of new cities along the coasts of western Sicily, Sardinia, northern Africa, and southern SpainCarthage Tunisia would become the most powerful of these new settlements and Rome’s greatest rivalGreeksContact with Italy had declined after the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization9th century started up trade and complex communities that developed into city statesBy 800, contacts with Italy increased againEtruria, Latium, and Campania had a huge rise of city-statesCity StateType of settlement and a form of political, military, and social organizationPossessed a clearly defined urban core with areas designated for elite and for communal ends along with cemeteries circling itScattered shrines, hamlets, and farmsteadsTypical one might have 1000 peopleFew hundred in the armyCentral Italy had larger city-statesThe center of the city state was where all the important stuff went onKings reigned in someTwo formative ages: Orientalizing Period (725-580) and the Archaic Period (580-480)WritingWritten texts were first in GreekEarliest known Etruscan documents date from beginning of the 7th centurySurviving texts are difficult to interpret and date and were inscribed on bronze, stone, or potteryElite8th century brought about families who had wealth and powerTombs are the earliest signs of thisTombs with rich deposits of grave goodsMourners deposited in the tombs objects that played a prominent role in an aristocratic self-image: horses, chariots, rich armor, weapons, and equipment for eating and drinkingArchitectureHuts with no traces of planning, formal organization, or public buildings7th century started members of the elite trying to build larger houses in the main centers of population600-built temples to their GodsTemples were normally built on a high platform or podium fronted by a porch with columns with a peaked roof of terracotta tiles with terracotta decorationsWarfareWarriors were followers of an aristocratic leaderArmor was made of metal or leather reinforced with metalBronze helmetsBronze greaves (leg armor)Carried a circular shield (hoplon)Armed with both a spear and a sword or daggerSocial and Economic OrganizationElite families dominatedProminent individuals organized men for war, led them in battle, and distributed the fruits of victory: land, cattle, captives, and the movable goods of the defeatedPatrons granted protection to their clients if the client served them in way of politics and warRomans belonged to a clan of gensConsisted of aristocratic lineage or group of lineages and some of their lesser followersGens each had a certain name and a first name, the praenomenThere was debt that created a relationship between the borrower and lenderMany men were forced to turn to their neighbors for help, for example with crop failureMost of the time the people couldn’t pay it back and that is when the lenders would gain a workforce or followersDebt formed a huge social conflictEtruscans and GreeksIts possible that some of Rome’s core institutions and practices were of Etruscan origin7th and 6th century had the Etruscans as Italy’s most powerful and richest cities6th century was when Sybaris was the strongest Greek city in Italy but it was defeated by Croton then Rhegium and Locri ended CrotonRomeWater was plentifulHills and rivers made defense easyTwo of the most central routes in Italy passed right throughThree hills: Capital, Palentine, VeliaForum RomanumCity’s political and religious centerPlace for large public assembliesUsed to be marshy and liable to flooding but they held construction and the huts were taken away and the valley’s lowest area was drainedForum BoariumPlain gave access to the Tiber fordChief market and harbor of urban RomeRegia and Comitium were other two placed in the political center that were builtCuria HostiliaMeeting places for the council for elders known as the senateComitiumSacred space where officials would summon citizens to vote, to hear legal cases, and to make important public decisionsSacra ViaChief processional route of the cityCapitolMajor center of civic and religious lifeVeiiEtruscan citySacked by RomeCategories of EvidencesArcheological (Material Culture)Pottery—buried basic dish, lamp to light a house, helping us to date things because we know how pottery styles evolve, remains of housesTools—tools were made out of different materials at different times, kinds of tools determines sophistication, who they are trading withTombs and grave goods (jewelry, figurines, drinking cups)—can tell us about the elite versus people who are shoved in the groundWritten Texts (started in 700 BC, dialects of Greek)Variations on Greek that eventually