Abnormal Psychology-TrullChapter 2: Perspectives on Abnormal PsychologyPerspectives, or models, are systematic ways of viewing and explaining what we see in the world. Five Models we will discuss:- Biological- Psychodynamic- Humanistic- Cognitive-Behavioral- SocioculturalBiological Model- Biological model: rests on the assumption that mental states, emotions, and behaviors arise from brain function and other physical processes.- The biological model of mental disorder was pioneered by Emil Kraepelin, who believed that symptoms and syndromes have biological causes o Kraepelin used exclusively clinical observationo Contributions: Certain symptoms seemed to go together- Identified schizophrenia and manic depression- Noted distinct patterns and courses of the symptoms  Believed in biological causes/factors for these severe illnesses - A genetic approach to mental disorder focuses on heritability and molecular genetics. - Heritability: refers to the amount of variation in a phenotype, an observable characteristic, attributed to genetic factors.o All mental disorders are at least partially heritableo Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have high rates of heritability- Genetic Contributions to Psychopathologyo Nature of Genes: DNA – the double helix  23 pairs of chromosomes Dominant vs. Recessive genes  Development and behavior is often polygenetic o Genetic contribution to psychopathy Less than 50%o Genotypes: genetic composition of a person and is fixed at birth. Produces characteristics such as eye color that do not change over time. o Phenotype: observable characteristic of a person  Can change over time.- The interaction of Genetic and Environmental Effects o The Diathesis-stress model Examples: alcoholism, depression o Reciprocal gene-environment model1Abnormal Psychology-Trull Examples: depression, impulsivity o Genes are not the whole story Environmental influences may override genetics - Neuroscience Contributions to Psychopathyo The field of Neuroscience The role of the nervous system in disease and behavioro Branches of human nervous system The Central Nervous System (CNS)- Brain and Spinal cord The Peripheral Nervous System- Neurons: basic unit of the nervous systems and communicate using chemical messengers, or neurotransmitters. o Neurons operate electrically and communicate chemicallyo Soma: cell bodyo Dendrites: branches that receive messages from other neurons o Axon: trunk of neuron that sends messages to other o Axon Terminals: o Synapses - Between neurons exists the synapse where neurons communicate with each other using neurotransmitters.  Most drugs are either agonistic or antagonistic - Medications used to treat mental disorders may influence behavior in one of two ways: o Blocking reuptake (the process of recycling neurotransmitters) to increase neurotransmitterso Blocking the synapse to decrease neurotransmitter levels. - The six major neurotransmitters associated with mental disorders and the behaviors they regulate:o Serotonin: processing information, regulation of mood, behavior and though processes o Norepinephrine: regulation of arousal, mood, behavior, and sleepo Dopamine: influences novelty seeking, sociability, pleasure, motivation, coordination, and motor movement o Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA): Regulation of mood, especially anxiety, arousal, and behavioro Acetylcholine: important in motor behavior, arousal, reward, attention, learning, and memoryo Glutamate: influences learning and memory - The Brain compositiono Billions of neuronso Lobes  Frontal: thinking and reasoning abilities, memory Parietal: touch recognition Occipital: integrates visual input Temporal: recognition of sights and sounds, long-term memory storage - Limbic System: regulations emotions and impulses, controls thirst, sex, and aggression, and is important for several mental disorders. o Cingulate gyruso Amygdala: regulates emotional state 2Abnormal Psychology-Trullo Thalamuso Mamillary bodyo Hippocampus o Olfactory bulbo Hypothalamus - Biologically oriented mental health professionals may use an MRI scan to obtain images of the brain structure and functioning. How are the two brains different? o Larger cerebellum = without autism o Smaller cerebellum = autism - Limitations of the Biological modelo Doesn’t fully account for any mental disordero We don’t know how biological mechanisms cause mental disorderPsychodynamic Model- Biological model focuses on:o Internal physical structures- Psychodynamic model focuses on:o Internal mental structureso Rests on the Freudian assumption that mental states, emotions, and behaviors arise from unconscious motives and intrapsychic conflicts. - According to psychodynamic theorists, the id, ego, and superego comprise the mind. o Id: pleasure Attain gratification of wants, needs, and impulseso Ego: reality Mediate demands of id and superego Cope with real world o Superego: Morality and conscious  Block id impulses - Freud’s psychosexual stages are developmental stages that influence personality and abnormal behavior.o Oral: 0-6 months  Mouth is the chief means of reaching satisfactiono Anal: 6 months – 3 years  Attention becomes centered on defecation and urination o Phallic: 3 – 6 years  Sexual organs become the prime source of gratificationo Latency: 6 – 12 years  Lack of overt sexual activity or interest o Genital: 12 years – adulthood  Mature expression of sexuality 3Abnormal Psychology-Trull- Conflict between the id, the ego, and the superego, otherwise known as intrapsychic conflict, can lead to anxiety and the formation of defense mechanisms. o Examples of defense mechanisms are denial, rationalization, repression, and overcompensation.o We use defense mechanisms to cope with life demands and intrapsychic conflict. o Problems occur when we use defense mechanisms exclusively or excessively. - A psychodynamically oriented therapist may use the projective hypothesis, assuming people project unconscious needs and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli such as inkblots, free association, or dream analysis to gain insight into the client’s problems. o Projective hypothesis: assumption that people project unconscious needs and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli  EX: ink blots o Free association: asking a client to say whatever comes to mind during the session, without exercising censorship or restraint o Dream analysis: dreams are