221 Cards in this Set
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Suspension Feeders
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Aquatic animals who sift small food particles from the water.
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Substrate Feeders
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Animals that live in or on their food source, eating their way through the food.
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Fluid Feeders
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Suck nutrient rich fluid from a living host.
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Bulk Feeders
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Eat relatively large pieces of food.
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Undernourishment
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If the diet of an animal is chronically deficient in calories.
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Overnourishment
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A diet that is chronically excessive in calories.
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Insulin
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Enhances the transport of glucose into the body cells and stimulates the liver and muscle cells to store glucose as glycogen, causing a reduction in glucose level. Also suppresses appetite by acting on the brain.
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Glucagon
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Promotes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and the release of glucose into the blood, increasing blood glucose level.
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Leptin
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Produced by adipose tissue. Suppresses appetite as its level increases.
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PYY
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Secreted by the small intestine after meals and acts as an appetite suppressant that counters the appetite stimulant ghrelin.
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Ghrelin
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Secreted by the stomach. Triggers the feeling of hunger as mealtimes approach.
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Essential Nutrients
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Materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animal's cells cannot make them from any raw material.
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Malnourishment
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An animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients.
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Essential Amino Acids
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Must be obtained from food in preassembled form.
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Essential Fatty Acids
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Fatty acids that animals cannot make.
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Vitamins
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Organic molecules required in the diet in amounts that are small compared with relatively large required quantities of essential amino acids and fatty acids.
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Minerals
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Simple inorganic nutrients required in small amounts.
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Water Soluble Vitamins
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Include the B complex and C (required for the production of connective tissue).
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Fat Soluble Vitamins
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Include A (eye pigmentation), D (calcium absorption and bone formation), E, and K (blood clotting).
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Ingestion
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The first stage of food processing. The act of eating.
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Digestion
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The processing of breaking food down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb.
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Enzymatic Hydrolysis
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Digestion breaks bonds with the addition of water.
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Absorption
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Animal cells take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars from the digestive compartment.
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Elimination
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Undigested material passes out of the digestive compartment.
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Intracellular Digestion
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When food vacuoles in the cell break down food without digesting the cell's own cytoplasm.
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Extracellular Digestion
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Breakdown of food outside cells.
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Gastrovascular Cavity
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Functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body in some animals.
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Alimentary Canal
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Animals with a digestive tube that extends between two openings, a mouth and an anus.
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Peristalsis
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Rhythmic waves of contraction by smooth muscles in the wall of the canal that pushes the food along the tract.
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Sphincters
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Ringlike valves between junctions between specialized segments of the digestive tube.
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Accessory Glands
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Salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
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Oral Cavity
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Triggers a nervous reflex that causes the salivary glands to deliver saliva through ducts to the oral cavity.
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Salivary Amylase
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An enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen in the oral cavity.
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Bolus
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The shape of the food after manipulated by the tongue.
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Pharynx
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A junction that opens to both the esophagus and trachea.
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Epiglottis
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Cartilaginous flap that blocks the glottis during swallowing.
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Esophagus
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Conducts the food from the pharynx down to the stomach via peristalsis.
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Stomach
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Stores food and performs preliminary steps of digestion.
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Gastric Juice
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Secreted by the epithelial lining deep pits in the stomach wall. Has a pH of 2.
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Pepsin
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Present in gastric juice. Breaks peptide bonds to specific amino acids, cleaving proteins into smaller polypeptides.
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Pepsinogen
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Secreted by chief cells to secrete pepsin.
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Parietal Cells
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Secrete Hydrochloric Acid in the stomach.
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Acid Chyme
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As a result of enzyme action and churning in the stomach, the swallowed meal becomes a nutrient-rich broth known as _____.
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Pyloric Sphincter
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Helps regulate the passage of chyme into the intestine.
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Small Intestine
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Longest section of the alimentary canal in humans where most enzymatic hydrolysis of food occurs.
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Duodenum
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Acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells.
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Bile
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Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder until needed. Emulsifies fats.
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Mucus Cells
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Secrete mucus to lubricate and protect cells lining the stomach.
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Gastric Gland
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Have three types of cells that secrete different components of gastric juice: mucus cells, chief cells, and parietal cells.
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Gastrin
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Recirculates via the bloodstream back to the stomach where it stimulates the the production of gastric juices.
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Secretin
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Secreted by the duodenum. Stimulates the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes acid chyme from the stomach.
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Enterogastrone
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Secreted by the duodenum. Inhibits peristalsis and acid secretion by the stomach, slowing digestion.
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Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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Stimulates the release of digestion enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder.
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Chylomicrons
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Small globules which are mostly transported out of epithelial cells and into lacteals.
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Lacteal
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A net of microscopic blood vessels and a small vessel of lymphatic system.
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Hepatic Portal Vein
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Capillaries and veins that carry nutrient-rich blood away from the villi to the liver.
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Colon
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Recovers water that has entered the alimentary as the solvent of the various digestive juices.
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Cecum
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Arm in the T junction of the colon.
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Appendix
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Fingerlike extension from the cecum.
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Feces
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Wastes of the digestive tract.
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Rectum
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The terminal portion of the colon where feces are stores until they are eliminated.
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Open Circularatory System
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Blood bathes organs directly.
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Blood Pressure
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Motive force for fluid movement in the circularatory system.
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Hemolymph
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General body fluid in an open circularatory system.
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Sinuses
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Spaces surrounding the organs.
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Closed Circularatory System
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Blood is confined to vessels.
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Atria
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Receive blood returning to the heart.
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Ventricles
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Chambers that pump blood out of the heart.
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Artery
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Carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.
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Arterioles
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Small vessels that convey blood to the capillaries.
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Capillary Beds
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Microscopic vessels where dissolved gases are exchanged by diffusion between blood and interstitial fluid around tissue cells.
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Veins
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Return blood to the heart.
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Gill Circulation
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In fishes, blood pumped from the ventricles travels first to the gills where it picks up oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide.
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Systemic Circulation (fishes)
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In fishes, Gill capillaries converge into a vessel that carries oxygen rich blood to capillary beds throughout all parts of the body.
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Pulmocutaneous Circuit
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In amphibians, this leads to capillaries in the gas exchange organs where blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide before returning to the atrium.
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Double Circulation
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Provides a vigorous flow of blood to the brain, muscles, and other organs because the blood is pumped a second time after it loses pressure in the capillary beds of the lungs or skin.
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Pulmonary Circuit
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In reptiles, the branch of the circulatory system that supplies the lungs.
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Cardiac Cycle
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One complete sequence of pumping and filling
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Systole
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Contraction phase
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Diastole
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Relaxation phase
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Cardiac Output
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The volume of blood per minute that the left ventricle pumps into the systemic circuit.
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Heart Rate
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Rate of contraction
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Stroke Volume
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The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in each contraction.
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Valve
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Flaps of connective tissue that prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the correct direction.
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AV Valve
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Valves between the atrium and ventricle.
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Semilunar Valve
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Located at two exits of the heart: before aorta and pulmonary artery.
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Pulse
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Rhythmic stretching of arteries caused by the pressure of blood driven by the powerful contractions of the ventricles.
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Heart Murmur
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Defect in a valve when a stream of blood squirts backwards through a valve.
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SA Node (Pacemaker)
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Sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract.
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Myogenic Heart
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Since the human pacemeaker is made of specialized muscle tissues and located within the heart itself, the vertebrate is made of muscle tissues called the ______.
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Neurogenic Heart
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In arthropods, pacemakers arise in motor nerves from the outside, and arrangement called a _______.
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AV Node
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Signals here are delayed for 0.1 seconds before spreading to the walls of ventricles.
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Electrocardiogram
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Impulses that travel through cardiac muscle during the heart cycle produce electrical currents that are conducted through body fluids through the skin.
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Endothelum
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A single layer of flattened cells that provide a smooth surface that minimizes resistance to blood flow.
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Peripheral Resistance
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Impedance of blood flow by the arterioles.
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Lymphatic System
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Where lost fluid and proteins return to the blood. Helps defend against infection and maintains the volume and protein concentration in the blood.
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Lymph
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Fluid in the lymphatic system
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Lymph Nodes
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Organs that play a role in the body's defense.
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Plasma
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Liquid matrix that suspends cells in the blood. 90% water.
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Erythrocytes
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Transport oxygen in the blood.
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Hemoglobin
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The iron containing protein that transports oxygen.
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Leukocytes
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White bloods cells. Fight infections. Include monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes.
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Fibrinogen
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Sealant present in an inactive form
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Fibrin
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Active form of fibrinogen which aggregates into threads that form the framework of the clot.
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Hemophilia
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A disease characterized by excessive bleeding from minor cuts and bruises.
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Thrombus
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When platelets clump and fibrin coagulates within a blood vessel, blocking the flow of blood.
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Low-Density Lipoproteins
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Associated with the deposition of cholesterol in arterial plaques that develop on the inner walls of arteries.
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High-Density Lipoproteins
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Appears to reduce the deposition of cholesterol.
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Atherosclerosis
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Cardiovascular disease when plaques narrow the bore of the artery.
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Hyptertension
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High blood pressure.
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Heart Attack
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Death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more arteries.
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Stroke
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Death of nervous tissue in the head resulting in rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
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Gas Exchange
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The uptake of oxygen and discharge of carbon dioxide.
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Respiratory Surface
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Part of an animal's body where gases are exchanged with the surrounding environment.
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Gills
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Outfoldings of the body surface suspended in water.
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Ventilation
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Increasing the flow of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface.
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Countercurrent Exchange
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When blood flows in the direction opposite to the movement of water past the gills, making it possible to transfer oxygen to the blood.
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Tracheal System
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Made of air tubes that branch throughout an insect's body.
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Lungs
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Have a dense net of capillaries under the epithelium the forms the respiratory surface.
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Larynx
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Upper part of the respiratory tract.
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Glottis
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Opening of the windpipe.
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Trachea
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Windpipe
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Bronchi
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Trachea forks that lead to each lung.
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Bronchioles
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Branches of bronchi.
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Alveoli
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The end of bronchioles that end as a cluster of air sacs called ____.
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Positive Pressure Breathing
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Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, drawing air through the nostrils. Found in amphibians.
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Negative Pressure Breathing
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Pulls air into the lungs. Found in mammals.
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Diaphragm
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A sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the chest cavity.
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Tidal Volume
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Volume of air a mammal inhales with each breath.
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Vital Capacity
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Maximum tidal volume during forced breathing.
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Residual Volume
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Air that remains in the lungs after exhaling.
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Medulla and Pons
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Breathing control centers in the brain.
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Partial Pressure
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Diffusion of a gas that depends on differences in a quantity.
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Bohr Shift
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A drop in pH lowers the affinity of affinity for oxygen.
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Innate Immunity
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Present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from birth.
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Acquired Immunity
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Develops only after exposure to inducing agents such as microbes, abnormal body cells, toxins, or other foreign substances.
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Antibodies
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Bind to microbes and mark them for elimination
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Lysozyme
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An enzyme that digests cell walls of many bacteria.
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External Defenses
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Skin and Mucous Membranes
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Internal Defenses
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Phagocytic Cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, Inflammatory Proteins, and Natural Killer Cells
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Phagocytosis
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The ingestion of invading microorganisms by certain types of white blood cells.
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Neutrophils
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Constitute 60-70% which are attracted to and enter infected tissue. Self-destruct during the process.
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Monocytes
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Produce macrophages
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Eosinophils
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Have low phagocytic activity but are crucial to defense against multicellular parasitic invaders.
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Dendritic Cells
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Can ingest microbes like macrophages.
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Complement System
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Antimicrobial proteins that include 30 serum proteins.
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Interferon
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Provides innate defense against viral infections.
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Inflammatory Response
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Damage to tissue by physical injury or the entry of pathogens leads to released numerous chemical signals that trigger a(n) _____.
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Mast Cells
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Store histamines
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Histamines
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Dilate and increase permeability of nearby capillaries.
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Chemokines
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Direct migration of phagocytes and signal them to increase production of microbe killing compounds.
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Natural Killer Cells
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Patrol the body and attack virus infected body and cancer cells.
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Apoptosis
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Programmed cell death
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Cytokines
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Proteins that help activate lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system.
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Antigen
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Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits a response from them.
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Epitope
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A lymphocyte that recognizes and binds to a small, accessible portion of antigen.
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B Cell Receptor
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Y-shaped molecule consisting of two identical heavy and light chains linked by a disulfide bridge.
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Immunoglobulins
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Structurally similar to B cell receptors but lack the transmembrane regions that anchor receptors in the plasma membrane.
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T Cell Receptor
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Consists of an alpha and beta chain linked by a disulfide bridge.
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Class I Major Histocompatibility Complex
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Bind peptides derived from foreign antigens synthesized within the cell. Recognized by cytotoxic T cells.
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Class II Major Histocompatibility Complex
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Made by dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells.Bind peptides derived from foreign materials internalized and fragmented through phagocytosis or endocytes.
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Thymus
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Produces T cells.
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Bone Marrow
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Produces B cells.
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Effector Cells
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Short-lived cells that combat the antigen
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Memory Cells
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Long-lived cells bearing receptors specific for the same inducing antigen.
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Clonal Selection
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Each antigen, by binding to specific receptors, selectively activates a tiny fraction of cells from the body's pool of lymphocytes.
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Primary Immune Response
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Selective proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes that occur the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen.
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Secondary Immune Response
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If an individual is exposed to the same antigen, the response is faster, of greater magnitude, and prolonged.
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Humoral Immune Response
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Involves the activation and clonal selection of B cells.
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Cell-Mediated Immune Response
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Involves the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells.
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Helper T Cell
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Responds to peptide antigens displayed on antigen-presenting cells and in turn stimulates the activation of nearby B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
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CD4
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Present in helper T cells that bind class II MHC molecules.
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CD8
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Present in cytotoxic T cells the enchance the interaction between a target cell and cytotoxic T cell.
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Monoclonal Antibodies
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Produced by a certain culture and are identical to each other and specific for the same epitope on an antigen.
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Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
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Generated from activated complement proteins and forms a pore in the membrane where ions rush into the cell, causing it to swell and lyse.
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Active Immunity
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Depends on the action of a person's own lymphocytes and the resulting memory cells specific for the invading pathogen.
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Passive Immunity
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Transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a particular infectious agent to someone who is not.
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Graft versus Host reaction
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Limited if the MHC molecules of the donor and recipient are well matched.
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Anaphylactic Shoc
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A whole-body, life-threatening reaction that can occur within seconds of exposure to an allergen.
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Autoimmune Diseases
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When the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules of the body.
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Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
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One with this disease is highly susceptible to opportunistic infections and cancers that take advantage of an immune system in collapse.
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Human Immunodeficiency Virus
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A retrovirus that gains entry into cells by making use of three proteins that participate in normal immune response.
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Signal Transduction Pathway
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The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a specific response.
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Local Regulators
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Only influence cells in their vicinity.
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Paracrine Signaling
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Numerous cells can simultaneously receive and respond to the molecules of growth factor produced by a single cell in the vicinity.
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Synaptic Signaling
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An electrical signal along a nerve cell triggers the secretion of a chemical signal carried by neurotransmitter molecules.
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Hormones
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Travel via the Circulatory System to target cells in other parts of the body.
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Reception
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Target cell's detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell.
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Transduction
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The binding of the signaling molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.
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Response
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The transduced signal that triggers a response.
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Ligand
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A molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.
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G Protein-Coupled Receptor
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Plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of G Protein.
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G Protein
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A protein that binds the energy rich molecule GTP.
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Receptor Tyrosine Kinanses
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Belong to a major class of plasma membrane receptors characterized by having enzymatic activity.
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Ligated-Gated Ion Channel
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Type of membrane receptor that can act as a gate when the receptor changes shape.
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Protein Kinase
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The general name for an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein.
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Protein Phosphates
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Enzymes that rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation.
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Second Messengers
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Many signaling pathways involve small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions.
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First Messengers
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Binds to the membrane-receptor.
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Cyclic AMP
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The binding of epinephrine to the plasma membrane of a liver cell elevates the cytosolic concentration of a compound.
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Adenylyl Cyclase
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Converts ATP to cAMP in response to an extracellular signal.
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Scaffolding Proteins
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Large relay proteins to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached.
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Endocrine System
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Chemical signaling by hormones is the function when one of the two basic systems for communication and regulation throughout the body.
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Nervous System
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A network of specialized cells that transmit signals along dedicated pathways.
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Endocrine Glands
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Secrete hormones directly into the surrounding fluid.
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Autocrine Signaling
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Secreted molecules act on the secreting cell itself.
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Neurotransmitters
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Diffuse a very short distance to bind receptors on target cell. Central to sensation, memory, cognition, and movement.
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Neurohormones
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Neurosecretory cells secrete _____ which diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream.
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Pheremones
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Chemicals released into the external environment.
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Hypothalamus
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Receives information from nerves throughout the body and from other parts of the brain. In response, it initiates endocrine signaling appropriate to environmental conditions.
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Pituitary Gland
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Gland located at the base of the hypothalamus. Has discrete posterior and anterior lobes.
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Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
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Extension of the hypothalamus that grows downward toward the mouth during embryonic development.
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Anterior Pituitary (adrenohypophysis)
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Develops from a fold of tissue at the roof of the embryonic mouth. Grows upward toward the brain and eventually loses its connection to the mouth.
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Oxytocin
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Posterior Pituitary hormone that regulates milk in mammals during nursing, mediating by a simple neurohormone pathway.
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Antidiuretic Hormone
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Posterior Pituitary hormone that helps regulate blood osmolarity.
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Tropic Hormone
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Regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands.
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Follicle-Stimulating and Lutenizing Hormones
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Anterior Pituitary Tropic hormone that regulates the male gonads and female ovaries.
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
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Anterior Pituitary Tropic hormone that stimulates the production and secretion of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex.
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Prolactin
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Anterior Pituitary Nontropic hormone that is remarkable for diversity of its effects among vertebrate species.
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Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
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Regulates the activity of pigment-containing cells in the skin of some amphibians.
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Growth Hormone
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Secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth through tropic and nontropic effects.
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BY 124: CHAPTER 32