193 Cards in this Set
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Structuralism
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approach to discovering the basic elements of mental processes using introspection
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Functionalist
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approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the person's adaptation to society
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Biological approach
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approach focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
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neuroscience
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study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system
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psychodynamic approach
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emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences
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humanistic approach
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emphasizes a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and freedom to choose one's destiny
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Cognitive approach
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emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think and solve problems
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Evolutionary approach
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centered on adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection to explain specific human behaviors
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sociocultural approach
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examines the influences of society and culture environments on behavior
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Operational definition
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provides and objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a study
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Self-determination theory
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people are likely to feel fulfilled when their lives meet there needs: relatedness, autonomy, and competence
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case study
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research that takes an in-depth look at a single individual
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correlational study
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research that examines the relationship between variables
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third variable problem
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where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables
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longitudinal study
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systematic observation that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time
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IV
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variable that experimenter changes
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DV
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variable that changes in response to the experiment
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afferent(sensory) nerves
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nerves that carry info about the external environment to the brain and spinal cord via sensory receptors
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Efferent (moto) nerves
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nerves that carry info out of the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body
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Neural networks
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networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output
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central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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network of nerves that connects to the brain and spinal cord and other parts of the body and bring info to and from brain and spinal cord to carry out the commands from the CNS to execute various muscular and glandular activities
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Somatic nervous system
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body system consisting of the sensory nerves;function is to convey info from the skin to the muscles to the CNS about pain & temp, and the motor nerves which tell muscles what to do
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Autonomic nervous system
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body system that takes messages to and from the body's internal organs monitoring processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion
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neurons
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nerve cell that handles the info-processing function
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glial cells
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provide support, nutritional benefit, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothly
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Components of a cell
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cell body, dendrites, and an axon
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Cell body
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contains nucleus, growth & maintenance
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Dendrites
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fibers projecting from a neuron that receive info and orient it toward neuron body
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Axon
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carries info away from cell body toward other cells
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resting potential
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the stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron
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action potential
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brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon
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all-or-nothing principle
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once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity
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synapses
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tiny spaces between neurons
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neurotransmitters
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chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting info across a synaptic gap to the next neuron
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Acetylcholine
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stimulates the firing of neurons and is involved in the action of muscles, learning, and memory
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GABA
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keeps many neurons from firing; low levels are linked with anxiety
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Norepinephrine
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inhibits firing of neurons in CNS, excites the heart muscle, intestines, and urogenital tract; helps control alertness; too little is linked with depression
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Dopamine
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helps control voluntary movement and affect sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to se rewards in environment
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Serotonin
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involved in regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning; low levels linked to depression
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Endorphins
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natural opiates that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons and shield the body from pain and elevate pleasre
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Oxytocin
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involved in the experience of love and social bonding
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agonist
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drug that mimics or increases a neurotransmitter's effect
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antagonist
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drug that blocks a neurotransmitter's effects
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Hindbrain
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located at skull's rear; consists of medulla, cerebellum, and pons
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Medulla
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governs breathing and relaxing
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Cerebellum
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rounded structure involved in motor coordination
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Pons
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governs sleep and arousal
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Midbrain
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between two sections of brain; relay info between the brain and the eyes and ears; consists two systems, reticular formation and small groups of neurons that use neurotransmitters
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forebrain
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largest division, most forward part consisting of limbic system, thalamus, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex
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cerebral cortex
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extensive, wrinkled outer layer of forebrain; governs higher brain functions like thinking, learning, planning, and consciousness;
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thalamus
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relays info between lower and higher brain centers; function is to sort info and send it to appropriate places in forebrain sits at the top of the brain stem in brain's central core; involved in sleep and wakefulness; works to orient info from sense receptors (hearing, seeing, etc.)
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basal ganglia
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large neuron clusters located above thalamus and under CC that work with cerebellum and CC to control and coordinate voluntary movements; enable people to engage in habitual behaviors
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hypothalamus
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governs eating, drinking, and sex, as well as emotion, stress, and reward; regulator of body's internal state;
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limbic system
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loosely connected network of structures under the cerebral cortex that are important in memory and emotion; two main structures are amygdala and hippocampus
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amygdala
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almond-shaped structure within base of temporal lobe; involved in fear, emotional awareness and expression, and discrimination of objects that are necessary for survival
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Hippocampus
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structure in limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories;
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brain stem
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includes much of hindbrain and the midbrain (minus cerebellum), connects with spinal cord at its lower end and extends up to encase the reticular formation in MB
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neocortex
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outermost part of CC, making up 80%; responsible for high-level thinking
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Lobes
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four regions of CC
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Occipital lobe
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Occipital lobe in back of head; respond to visual stimuli
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Temporal lobe
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just above ears; involved in hearing, language, processing, and memory
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frontal lobe
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behind forehead; involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles
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parietal lobe
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top and toward rear of head; involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control
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prefrontal cortex
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important part of frontal lobe that is involved in higher cognitive functions like planning, reasoning, and self-control
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motor cortex
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a region in the CC just behind the frontal lobe; processes info about voluntary movement
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somatosensory cortex
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a region in the CC just behind the frontal lobe; processes info about body sensations
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association cortex
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a region in the CC; site of highest intellectual functions like thinking and problem-solving
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left hemisphere
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involved in language, speech, grammar, singing
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right hemisphere
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involved in processing nonverbal info like spatial perception, visual recognition, and emotion
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corpus callosum
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large bundle of axons that connects the brains two hemispheres; relay info between two sides
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endoctrine system
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set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream
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pituitary gland
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pea-sized gland just under hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands
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adrenal glands
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on top of each kidney; regulate moods, energy level, and ability to cope with stress
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dominant-recessive gene principle
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if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides recessive; recessive gene only exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive
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sensation
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process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transferring those energies into neural energy
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perception
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process of organizing and interpreting sensory info so that it makes sense
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bottom-up processing
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sensory receptors register info about external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation
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top-down processing
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starts with cognitive processing at the higher levels of brain; begin with some sense of whats happening and apply that to info from the world
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sensory receptors
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specialized cells that detect stimulus info and transmit it to the sensory (afferent) nerves in the brain; nearly all signals pass through the thalamus to the CC
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absolute threshold
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minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect
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difference threshold
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the degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected
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subliminal perception
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the detection of info below the level of conscious awareness
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signal detection theory
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an approach to perception that focuses on decision-making about stimuli under conditions of uncertainty
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selective attention
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act of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring the others
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perceptual set
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predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a certain way
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sensory adaptation
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change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation
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sclera
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white, outer part of the eye that helps protect it from injury and maintain the shape of the eye
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iris
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colored part of eye
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pupil
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black opening in the eye
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cornea and lens
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clear membrane/transparent structures that bend the light falling on the surface of the eye just enough to focus it at theback
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retina
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multilayered light-sensitive surface in eye that records electromagnetic energy and converts in to neural impulses for processing in the brain
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rods
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receptor cells in retina that are sensitive to light, but not useful for color vision
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cones
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receptor cells in retina that allow for color perception
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optic nerve
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structure at back of eye made up of axons of the ganglion cells that carries visual info to brain for processing
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visual cortex
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located in occipital lobe, part of CC involved in vision
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parallel processing
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simultaneous distribution of info across different neural pathways
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binding
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the bringing together and integration of what is processes by different neural pathways or cells
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trichromatic theory
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color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different by overlapping ranges of wavelengths
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opponent-process theory
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cells in visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue
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figure-ground relationship
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principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (ground)
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gestalt psychology
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school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns
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perceptual constancy
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recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing
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outer ear
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consists of pinna and auditory canal
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pinna
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collects sounds and channels them into the interior of the ear
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auditory canal
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where sound waves travel and generate vibrations in the eardrum
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middle ear
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channels sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup
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eardrum
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vibrates in response to sound; separates the outer ear from middle ear
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hammer, anvil and stirrup
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when vibrated, transmit sound waves to the fluid-filled inner ear
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inner ear
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includes oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane; function is to convert sound waves into neural impulses and send them to brain
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oval window
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transmits sound waves to the cochlea
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cochlea
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tubular, fluid-filled structure that is coiled up like a snake
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basilar membrane
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lines inner wall of cochlea; different areas vibrate more intensely when exposed to different sound frequencies
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place theory
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how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound stating that each frequency produces vibrations at a certain place on the basilar membrane
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frequency theory
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how the inner ear registers the frequency of sound, stating that the perception of a sound's frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires
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volley principle
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a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses
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auditory nerve
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nerve structure that receives info about sounds from the hair cells of the inner ear and carries these neural impulses to the brain's auditory areas
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cutaneous senses
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receptors for touch, temperature and pain
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fast pathway
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help with localization of sound; fibers connect directly with the thalamus and then to the motor and sensory areas of the CC
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slow pathway
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pain info travels through the limbic system
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chemical senses
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taste and smell
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papille
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the receptors for taste
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olfactory epithelium
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the lining of the roof of the nasal cavity containing a sheet of receptor cells for smell
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kinesthetic senses
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senses that provide info about movement, posture, and orientation
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vestibular senses
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senses that provide info about balance and movement
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proprioceptive feedback
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info about the position of our limbs and body parts in relation to other body parts
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semicircular canals
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three fluid-filled tubes in inner ear containing sensory receptors that detect head motion caused when one tilts or moves the head or body
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stream of consciousness
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mind as a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences
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awareness
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awareness of self and thoughts about one's experiences; prefrontal cortex
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arousal
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physiological state of being engaged with the environment; medulla & thalamus
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theory of mind
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individuals' understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences
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controlled processes
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most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal
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automatic proccesses
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states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities
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biological rythms
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periodic physiological fluctuations in the body
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suprachiasmatic nucleus
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small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark
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beta waves
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reflect concentration and alertness
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alpha waves
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reflect relaxation and drowsiness
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stage 1 sleep cycle
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drowsy sleep lasting up to 10 min; sudden muscle movements; theta waves- low freq./low amp.
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stage 2 sleep cycle
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deeper sleep characterized by occasional sleep spindles (brief high-freq. waves), lasting up to 20 min.
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stage 3 sleep cycles
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progressively more muscle relaxation and emergence of delta waves (slower); lasting up to 40 min
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stage 4 sleep cycle
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deep sleep when sleeper is difficult to rouse; delta waves (large, slow) occur
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REM stage sleep cycle
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instead of reentering stage 1, the person shows patterns similar to relaxed wakefulness; most dreaming occurs in this stage; lasts for about 10 min in 1st cycle, and up to 1 hour in last
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Freud theory of dreaming
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distinguished between a dream's manifest content (surface content of dream containing dream symbols that hide dream's true meaning) and latent content (a dream's hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning)
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cognitive theory of dreaming
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we can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind
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activation-synthesis theory
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dreaming occurs when the CC synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower brain and that dreams result from the brain's attempt to logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep
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nicotine
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stimulant; stimulates the brain's reward center by raising dopamine levels
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divided consciousness view of hypnosis
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Hilgard's view that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components, one follows the hypnotist's commands and the other acts as the hidden observer
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social cognitive view of hypnosis
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hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves in the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should
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behaviorism
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theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping
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associative learning
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learning occurs when an organism makes a connection between two events
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observational learning
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learning occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior
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classical conditioning
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a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
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operant conditioning
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the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence
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acquisition
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initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when they are paired
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generalization (CC)
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the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response similar to the CR
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discrimination
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process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
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extinction
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weakening of the CR when the US is absent
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spontaneous recovery
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a CR can recur after a time delay without further conditioning
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aversive conditioning
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form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with an unpleasant one
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counterconditioning
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changing the relationship between a CS and its CR
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habituation
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decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
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behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
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shaping
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rewarding successive approximation of a desired behavior
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positive reinforcement
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presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of the behavior
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negative reinforcement
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removal of a stimulus following the given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior
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avoidance learning
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organism's learning that it altogether can avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response
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learned helplessness
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through experience with unavoidable stimuli, organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes
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primary reinforcer
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food, water, sexual pleasure
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secondary reinforcer
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a on test, paycheck
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generalization (OC)
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performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
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discrimination (OC)
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responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will not be reinforced
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extinction (OC)
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decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced
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schedules of reinforcement
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specific patters that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
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fixed-ratio schedule
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reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors
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variable-ratio schedule
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behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but done unpredictably
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fixed-interval schedule
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reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed
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variable-interval schedule
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behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed
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positive punishment
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behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of stimulus
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negative punishment
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behavior decreases when it is followed by the removal of a stimulus
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applied behavior analysis
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use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
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Bandura's OL Model
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attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement
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attention
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attend to what the model is saying or doing
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retention
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encode the info and keep it in memory so that you can retrieve it
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motor reproduction
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imitating the model's actions
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vicarious reinforcement
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seeing a model attain a reward for an activity increases the chances the observer will repeat the behavior
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vicarious punishment
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seeing the model punished makes the observer less likely to repeat the behavior
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purposiveness of behavior
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much of behavior is goal-oriented
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latent learning
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unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
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insight learning
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form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution
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instinctive drift
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tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
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preparedness
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species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
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fixed mindset
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belief that qualities are carved into stone and cannot change
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growth mindset
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belief that qualities can change and improve through effort
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PSY 101: Chapter 12