44 Cards in this Set
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What is the difference between making ATP by oxidative phosphorylation and by substrate level phosphorylation?
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Oxidative - ADP+P=ATP, oxygen added+hydrogen=H2O which creates energy for production of protons
Substrate - organic molecule or enzyme+P=ATP, enzyme boys with APD and substrate connected to a P
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What is the energy yield of Glycolysis?
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2 ATP & 2 NADH
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You start Glycolysis with 6C sugar, it ends up with what organic molecule? How many?
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2 pyruvate --> acetyl CoA (2C)
^
CO2
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How is ATP made by chemiosmosis?
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ADP+P=ATP, using electron transport chain creating a proton gradient
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What does the electron transport chain do?
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- produce protons, proton gradient
- produces water
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Glycolysis and the TCA or Citric Acid Cycle are catabolic processes. However, some carbon is withdrawn from these pathways at specific steps for anabolism. What sorts of molecules are first made from these organic intermediates?
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- Amino Acids
- Alanine, pyruvate+NH2=AA's
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If you have a Citric Acid Cycle running in a cell, what does that mean?
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ATP is being made, if no TCA cycle, no CO2 is made, needs O2
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If the Citric Acid Cycle is running, what electron donors are made?
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- NADH
- needs O2
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Where is NADH consumed if oxygen is present? (Aerobic)
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Electron Transport Chain, Chemiosmosis
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Where is NADH consumed if oxygen is absent? (Anaerobic)
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Lactic Acid fermentation
Glucose --------------------------------------------------> 2 pyruvate
NAD in =NADH out + 2 ATP made
No NAD? No Glycolysis :(
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Where does Glycolysis occur?
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Cytoplasm, no mitochondria
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Where does the Citric Acid Cycle occur?
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Mitochondria
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What is the fate of pyruvate in a yeast cell in the presence of oxygen? Absence?
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Presence - converted to acetyl-CoA, then enters citric acid cycle where it is completely oxidized into CO2 (Eukaryotic)
Absence - converted to lactate/lactic acid, making ethanol (Prokaryotic)
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If 2 carbons enter the TCA cycle, how many leave and in what form?
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2 enter and 2 leave as CO2
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Can carbon be oxidized further than CO2?
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No
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Are the reactions of metabolism unidirectional or reversible?
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Reversible
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If a photon is absorbed by a single chlorophyll molecule, how many electrons achieve an excited state? How many electrons are passed through the photosystems and ETC's?
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1 electron
1 photon for every 1 electron
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How do Photosystem II and Photosystem I work together?
How do all these events lead to stored energy that makes ATP?
How are all these components arranged in the thykaloids to do that?
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PS II - chemiosmosis making proton gradient
PS I - anabolism, dark reactions
Travel through chloroplast E.T.C.
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What is the electron donor for photosynthesis?
What does it take to extract electrons from it?
What is the byproduct?
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Water
Dark reactions
Thykaloid membranes --> dump protons
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What is the electron donor for the light reactions of photosynthesis? Dark reactions?
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Water which ends up on NADP+ which is reduced to NADPH (Stroma)
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How is ATP made during photosynthesis and where in the chloroplast does that happen? Where do the dark reactions happen?
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Respiration breaks down complex molecules to release energy used to make ATP, ATP Synthase, head of chloroplast, happens in thykaloid, stroma
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During the Calvin Cycle, 3 CO2 go in and one molecule of a 3 carbon carbohydrate comes out. What is this compound and how is it related to glucose (the final product)?
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Glyceraldhyde phosphate x2 = 1 glucose
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What is the cost of the dark reactions in ATP?
What is the electron donor to the dark reactions and how many are required for each turn of the Calvin Cycle?
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18 ATP
+
12 NADH
=
Glucose
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Why are they called 'dark' reactions, can they happen in light?
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They do not directly depend on photons of light and it does not depend on light, (light independent)!
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What are trees essentially made of?
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Electrons+carbon
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What aspects of the cytoskeleton are involved in mitosis?
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Microtubules and microfilaments/actinfilaments
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Phases
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Metaphase - chromosomes line up
Prophase - chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes
Anaphase - move to poles
Telophase - cell divides in two
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How do sister chromatids separate from one another?
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Kinetichore, microtubules attach
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Are the cells diploid after all the events of mitosis?
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Yes, equal distribution of the chromosome
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Is mitosis a major part of the cell cycle time-wise?
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No, tiny sector
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Most of the cell cycle happens in what phase?
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Interphase
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Cells that don't divide entire what phase of the cycle?
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G0, nondividing cells
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What happens in G1, S, G2, and M?
Why does this process have to be regulated?
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G1 - Growth, new proteins and organelles are made
S - Synthesis, occurs in nucleus, anaphase
G2 - Interphase, growth and prep for division
M - mitosis & cytokinesis occur, cleavage separating cells
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What could go wrong in the cyclin system, Rb or p53 control that could lead to a loss of cell cycle regulation?
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Mutations which could cause cancer, uncontrolled cell growth
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How do cyclins positively regulate the cell cycle?
What outcome of an altered cyclin pathway could lead to cancer?
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Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)
Phosphate group added
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How does Rb work and what defects on Rb function could contribute to cancer? p53? How does that work?
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Inheritance, active when releases factor necessary for synthesis of DNA
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What multiple bad outcomes arise when p53 is mutated?
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Cancer
Cell can't repair DNA
Apoptosis - self destruction of cell
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How do bacterial septa form?
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FTSZ, chromosomes about to separate
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What stage does meiosis clearly differ from mitosis?
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Metaphase I - homologous chromosomes, crossing over
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When and how are chromosomes brought together to allow crossing over?
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Prophase I - each haploid cell will inherit a chromosome with a different combination, genetic exchange can happen
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How many different ways can chromosomes be successfully partitioned into gametes?
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2^23, egg or sperm
5 chromosomes --> 2^5, less genetic diversity
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Meiosis is composed of two stages, meiosis I and meiosis II. Which one is most similar to mitosis?
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Meiosis I because only one division happens
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If you start with one cell about to undergo meiosis, how many cells will you have when the process is complete?
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4 cells --> meiosis most likely happened
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Are all eukaryotes typically diploid? If not, what types of organisms are largely haploid and how do they go through the sexual stage of their life cycle?
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Most are diploid
Yeast cells, fungi, ferns
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BIOL 2050: Exam 3