LING 2100: Final Exam
174 Cards in this Set
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complementary distribution
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different environments, no overlap, no difference in meaning, predictable
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constrative distribution
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same environments, different meaning, not predictable
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minimal pair
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two words that differ by only one sound
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natural classes
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groups of rules that pattern together
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stridents/siblants
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hushing/ hissing sounds
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assimilation
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one sound becomes more like another
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dissimilation
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sound becomes less like another
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insertion
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sound is inserted
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deletion
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sound is removed
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methasis
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xy---yx
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fortition
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strengthening of sound
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lentition
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weakening of sound
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weak
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voiced, fricative, aspirated, sonorants
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strong
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voiceless, plosives, aspirated, obstruents
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obstruent
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plosive fricative affricate
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sonorant
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nasal approximant vowels
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labial
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bilabial and labiodental
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coronal
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interdental alveolar postalveolar
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dorsal
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palatal velar
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lexical category
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part of speech
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free morphemes
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can occur by themselves
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bound morphemes
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cannot occur alone
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open morphemes
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accept new words
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closed morphemes
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don't accept new words
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root
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base word
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stem
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what you attach affixes to
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affixes
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prefixes, suffixes, etc
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reduplication
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like---likelike
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compounding
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blackbird, bookstore
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alternation
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depth, deep
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suppletion
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go to went
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analytical languages
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low morpheme to word ratio
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synthetic languages
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high morpheme to word ratio
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isolating language
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no bound morphemes
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aggulating languages
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morphemes have exactly one meaning
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fusional languages
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morphmes have many meanings
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solving phonology problems
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minimal pairs, natural classes, distribution, state rule, list phonemes, write rule
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syntax
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word order
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semantics
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meaning
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complements
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sometimes optional, can't have more than allowed, have a specific order
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adjuncts
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always optional, no limit, freely ordered
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complement adjunct test
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if you exclude it and it doesn't work, it's a complement, if you insert which happened adjuncts make sense
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constituency tests
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answer question, coordination, clefting, passivization, omission
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lexical ambiguity
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words can mean different things
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syntactic ambiguity
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trees drawn differently because of structure
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innateness hypothesis
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language ability is innate in humans
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linguistics universals
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features shared by all languages
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universal grammar
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set of structural characteristics shared by all languages
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traits of biologically controlled behaviors
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emerge before needed, appear not as a result of conscious choice, not triggered by external events, teaching and practice have little effect, regular sequence of milestones, critical period
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critical period
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period of development in which language must be acquired, from birth to puberty
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imitation theory
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claims that kids get language by repeating the speech heard from speakers, fails to account for errors not found in adult speech, children also produce novel utterance which they did not hear from adults
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reinforcement theory
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claims that children learn to speak correctly on the basis of reinforcement, praises and rewards for correct forms and correction or punishment for incorrect ones, attempts to correct incorrect utterances often fall on deaf ears
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connectionist theories
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claims children learn language by making neural connections in the brain, these connections develop from hearing and using language, children acquire language and produce forms based not on abstract rules but on statistical patterns, explains outputs like frang to nonsense verbs like frin…
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social interaction theory
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claims children acquire language through interaction with speakers, children and other adults, keeps the premises that children develop rules and are predisposed towards acquiring language, underscores use of child directed speech, the way adults speak to kids, however kids produce uttera…
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high amplitude sucking
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infants are given a pacifier which makes makes a sound upon being sucked, initially suck rapidly bc interested in sound,lose interest rapidly
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conditioned head turn procedure
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child is first conditioned to expect a visual change accompanying change in sound, then when sound is changed, child looks to see if the visual changes after sound change
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babbling
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producing strings of consonants and vowels, four to six months, initially palatal and bilabial consonants, along with low back unrounded vowels
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repeated or canonical babling
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seven to ten months same consonants and vowels
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variegated babbling
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ten to twelve months, different vowels and consonants begin to emergy
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children do not produce words consistently until
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twelve months
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one word stae
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holophrastic, one year, child produces single words in isolation, initially nouns, later expanding to include verbs and other words
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two word stage
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18-24 months, child produces two word utterances, consisting of semantic pairs, no function words or morphemes
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three words utterances built out of
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two word utterances
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overgeneralization
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application of rule to all or nearly all forms where it couldd apply without account for exceptions
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negation
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children first use no at beginning of sentence, later use any negative word in between subject and verb, then coalesce to adult usage, then learn to use words like anything
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interrogation
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children use intonation rather than syntax to express questions, at around three the child uses auxiliaries before subject in yes no questions, children produce correct order for wh- questions last
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word meaning
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children begin producing words around one year, by six, vocal is around 14000 words
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complexive concept
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semantically non uniform set of objects
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overextension
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giving a word a wider meaning than in adult language
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underextension
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giving a word a narrower meaning than is given in adult language
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children master nouns at
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aruond 6-9 months
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proper nouns are mastered
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after regular nouns
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bilingual
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having native like control of two languages
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multilingual
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having native like control of more than two languages
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simultaneous bilingualism
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acquire two languages at once from birth
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sequential bilingualism
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acquire one language later than the other
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transfer
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influence of native language on second langue, can be positive or negative,
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factors influencing success of second language acquisiton
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motivation, age, exposure to target language
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mode of communication
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medium of transmission
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semanticity,
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communicative signs have associated meaning, all communication has this
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pragmatic function
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communication serves a purpose, all communication has this
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interchangeability
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a communicator can transmit and receive, human communication and many other forms have this, some lack this
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cultural transmission
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some aspects of the communication must be acquired through interaction with other communicators, human language has this, most animal communication is not
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arbitrariness
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connection between form and meaning is arbitrary, most animal communication is iconic, some is arbitrary as is human language
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discreteness
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building up forms out of smaller discrete units, human language is discrete, most animal communications are not
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displacement
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ability to communicate ideas and about things that are not present, humans can do this, animals cannot
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productivity
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infinite possibilities with finite products, human language has this, animal communication doesnt
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bee communication
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dance to indicate information about food source, circle for close, sickle for farther, tail wagging for further still, repetitions indicate food quality, orientation of dance indicates direction, speed indicates how far in sickle
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is bee communication language?
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no, bees can only talk about food sources, number of utterances is finite, but there is some arbitrariness, also discrete units
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bird communication
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uses calls and songs, may indicate a birds location, or may warn of predators, songs typically by male birds only, songs can have different meanings, some variation, but it isn't meaningful variation
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primate communication
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no displacement or productivity, but vervet monkeys do sometimes cry wolf, do show cultural transmission
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teaching primates language
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no successful attempts, primates lack human vocal tract and auditory acuity necessary to hear and produce speech like a human, sign language more successful, but not similar to human proficiency
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pets
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cannot distinguish human speech sounds, dogs obey simple commands, which are usually paired with gestures and intonations
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parrots
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can imitate humans speech,
not the same as knowing language
pepperberg taught parrot to identify shapes, but couldn't speak like humans
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language variety
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any form of language characterized by systemic features, including different languages, different dialects of the same language, speech of a single person, speech of a single person in a single context
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sociolinguistics
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study of relationship between language variety and social structure
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idiolect
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single speakers variety
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dialect
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variety of a language which is spoken by a group of speakers and which is noticeable different from the variety spoken by another group of speakers, every person speaks a dialect
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speech community
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a group of speakers of the same dialect,speech communities may be defined in terms of extra linguistic factors
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extralinguistic factor
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factor external to language, esx region geography socioeconomic class, age, gender, ethnicity, race
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communicative isolation
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where a speech community is relatively isolated from speakers outside of community, relatively rare in modern world
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accent
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phonetic or phonological variation, every speaker has an accent
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dialect vs language
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two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if they are mutually intelligible
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mutual intelligibility
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speakers of dialect a can understand speakers of dialect b and vice versa
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complications
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other extralinguistics factors can influence speakers perceptions of whether two varieties are distinct languages or not, dialect continue
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dialect continuum
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series of dialects where adjecnt dialects are mutually intelligible but dialects on opposite ends of the continuum are not mutually intelligible
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speech style
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variation based on topic, setting, addressee, context dependent
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register
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speech style based on formality
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style shifting
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automatic adjustment of speech style, based on situation, largely non conscious
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jargon
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technical language, a language variety differing only in lexical terms
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slang
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also largely differing in vocabulary
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common slang
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not particular to a subgroup, lower register, informal
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in group slang
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particular to a subgroup, used to exclude non-members,
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standard vs nonstandard dialects
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standard dialects are generally preferred by such speakers as politicians, members of the media, and those belonging to higher socio-economic classes and are taught in schools, non standard dialects deviate from the standard
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prestige
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social regard for a variety, varieties with higher prestige are thought of a s more desirable
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prescriptive standard
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standard for making prescriptive judgements
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hypercorrection
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producing nonstandard forms by false analogy
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sae
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standard american english, standard dialect in the use, not maintained by a language academy as some of the other standards are
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bidialectical
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when speakers of nonstandard dialects learn the standard dialect
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phonetic variation
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variation in the actual sounds themselves
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phonological/phonemic variation
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variation in the number of phonemes or distribution of allophones
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morphological variation
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variation in morphological usage, ex distribution of morphemes or use of entirely different morphemes
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syntactic variation
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variation in syntactic properties
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lexical variation
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variation in vocabulary items
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regional variation
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linguistic variation based on geography
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regional dialect
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a variety of language particular to speakers of a particular geographic area
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isogloss
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line marking the boundary of use of one form or rule, a bundle of isoglosses is typically used to differentiate two regional dialects
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social dialect
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a variety specific to speakers belonging to a social group,
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socioeconomic variation
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commoner in lower class speed are variation
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gender variation
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women lead linguistic changes, males generally acquire such change a generation behind
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ethnic variation
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aave multiple negation, habitual be, chicano english, lumbee
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language is often tied to
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identity
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speakers can use language variety to
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signal identity
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synchronic language change
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at a certain time period
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diachronic language change
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across time
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historical linguistics
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field concerned with language change, most specifically with dis chronic change
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proto indo european
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single ancestor of the members of the indo european language family
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language family
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group of languages that share a single ancestor
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middle english time period
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1100-1500 CE
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early modern english time period
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1500-1700
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contemporary english time period
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1750- now
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arbitrary language
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languages sometimes share similarities because these are features common among languages, sometimes it can be coincidence
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non arbitrary language features
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sometimes has a relation between sound and meaning, sometimes the result of contact, sometimes languages ae related
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relatedness hypothesis
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if two languages show a significant amount of similarity, they're likely to be related or to share a common ancestor
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cognates
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words of the same source
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mother language
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ancestor of another language
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daughter language
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descendent of another language
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sister languages
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descendants from the same mother language
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protolanguage
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earlier common language from which members of a language family descend
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family
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tree theory, analogizes language relatedness to that of humans, shows descent from a protolanguage to its daughter languages
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regularity hypothesis
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sound change is regular and exceptionless
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wave theory
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a different model for representing linguistic relatedness, changes and innovations can spread from one language to nearby ones, accounts for dialect continua
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sound change
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includes phonetic and phonemic change
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phonetic change
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change in pronunciation only
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phonemic/phonological change
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affects phonological system, changes in number of phonemes or distribution of allophones
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unconditioned sound change
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change that occurs at all instances
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conditioned sound change
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occurs only within a conditioning environment
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monophthongization
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a diphthong becomes a monophthong
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diphthongization
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a monophthong becomes a diphthong
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raising
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a vowel is produced at a higher point in the mouth
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lowering
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a vowel is produced at a lower point in the mouth
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fronting
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a vowel is produced farther front in the mouth
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backing
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a vowel is produced further back in the mouth
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analogical change
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change of a form based on another form
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sound change is regular but creates
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irregularity
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analogy is irregular, but creates
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regularity
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attestation
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language is said do be attested if there is direct evidence for it
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sound correspondence
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relationship between a sound in one language and a sound in a relate language, established through comparison of cognates
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reconstruction
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estimation of unattested language on the basis of one or more attested language
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internal reconstruction
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based on data from a single language, reconstructs pre language
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comparative language reconstruction
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based on comparison of related languages, reconstructs protolanguage
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reconstruction depends on the regularity of
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sound change
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comparative method
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the way comparative reconstruction is done, cognate segments are compared with each other to identify sound correspondences
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uniformitarian principle
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laws and processes at work on language now were present and at work on language in the past
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LING 2100: Test two