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UGA LING 2100 - Exam 3 Study Guide
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LING 2100Exam # 3 Study Guide Chapter 5: Syntax Basic Ideas of Syntax - Syntax is the component of grammar that deals with how words and phrases are combined into larger phrases - Linguistic Expression o A piece of language (words and phrases) that has a certain form (what it sounds like), a certain meaning, and some syntactical properties as well - Grammatical vs Ungrammaticalo If a sentence is grammatical, then it syntactically makes sense o * = ungrammatical sentence Syntactic Properties - Word Order o In English the subject typically precedes the verb, while objects then follow Ex: Sally ate an apple vs. *Sally an apple ate- Co-Occurrence o Arguments  If a certain word is used in a sentence it sometimes requires another part to the sentence; obligatory Cannot have more than required - Ex: *Sally seemed cute happy - Sally seemed happy  Cannot be freely ordered with respect to one another - Ex: *Sally put on the table the book - Sally put the book on the table  Ex: Sally devoured an apple - Devoured requires two arguments o The apple (object) o And Sally (the subject) - Non-subject arguments are called compliments o An apple is a compliment of devoured o Adjuncts  These are optional phrases that may be added to a sentence; can add as many as you want  Can add as many as you like - Ex: The really fluffy grey cat was sleeping  Can be freely ordered with respect to one another - Ex: The really grey fluffy cat was sleepingo Agreement  Distinct expressions in a sentence may be required to have the same value for some grammatical feature, in which case we say that they agree with respect to that feature  Ex: This girl came vs *This girls came Syntactic Constituency - Syntactic Constituent o Idea that certain groups of expressions within a large phrase can form a syntactic unit o The small expressions out of which the phrase was constructed o They reveal the syntactic structure of the sentence; they show how the sentence was built out of smaller expressions o Ex: In the sentence “Sally devoured an apple” the constituent is “an apple” - Answers to Questions o The cat was sleeping on the desk  Is on the desk a constituent? YES  Where was the cat sleeping? - On the desk  Is sleeping on the desk a constituent? YES  What was the cat doing?- Sleeping on the desk  Is the cat a constituent? YES  Who was sleeping on the desk?- The cat - Clefting o A kind of sentence in which some constituent is displaced or moved to the left o Is on the desk a constituent? YES  It was on the desk that the cat was sleeping o Is the cat a constituent? YES  It was the cat that was sleeping on the desk Syntactic Categories - Syntactic Distribution o When expressions can occur in almost all the same syntactic environments  Ex: substituting the name Fluffy in for the cat in every sentence - The cat is sleeping vs. Fluffy is sleeping  However, you cannot substitute Fluffy for cat in every sentence so they donot have the same syntactic category- *The Fluffy is sleeping vs. *Cat is sleeping - Syntactic Categories o NP (noun phrase)  Has the same distribution as a personal pronoun or a proper name  She, sally, the cat, this cute dog, that cat under the bedo N (noun)  Needs a determiner to the left to form a NP  Cat, cute dog, cat under the bedo D (determiner)  Occurs the left of the noun in the NP  The, every, this o A (Adjective)  Occurs in between a determiner and a noun; can be a noun adjunct, that is, combines with a noun to its right which results in an expression that is also of category N  Cute, fluffy, grayo VP (Verb Phrase)  Consists minimally of a verb and all its complements; combines with an NP to its left which results in a sentence; has the same distribution as slept or did so  Slept, wrote the letter quickly, liked Bob, walked, believed she liked that man o TV (transitive verb)  Needs an NP complement to form a VP  Liked, devoured o DTV (ditransitive verb)  Needs two NP complements to form a VP  Gave, sent o SV (sentential complement verb)  Needs a sentential complement to form a VP  Believed, said o Adv (adverb)  Can be a VP adjunct, that is combines with a VP to its left which results in an expression that is also of category VP  Fast, quickly, tomorrow o P (preposition)  Combines with NP to form a PP  At, for, with o PP (prepositional phrase)  Can be a VP or an N adjunct, consists of a preposition and its NP complement  At the table, for Sally, under the bed Constructing Grammar - Ambiguity o Linguistic forms that can correspond to more than one distinct expression o Ex: a) Sally works at the local bank b) There is a bike path along the east banko Types of Ambiguity  Lexical Ambiguity/ Homophony - A single word corresponds to distinct expressions that differ in meaning - Ex: Sally has a fast car (Adj) Sally walks fast (Adv)  Structural Ambiguity - Ex: Sandy said Tom would be here yesterday o Yesterday could be a VP (would be here yesterday) or it could be an adjunct to the VP in which she said that yesterday - The cop saw the man with the binoculars o With the binoculars could be a VP adjunct (the cop had the binoculars) or a Noun adjunct (the man had the binoculars) Chapter 6: Semantics Overview of Semantics - Lexical Semantics o Deals with the meanings of words and other lexical expressions, including the meaning relationships among them - Compositional Semantics o Concerned with phrasal meanings and how phrasal meanings are assembled - Two Aspects of Linguistic Meaning o Sense  Mental representation of its meaning, some kind of concept o Reference  By virtue of knowing the sense of some expression, you also know its relationship to the world, its reference  Mental representation of what cats are (four legged, furry, etc)  Referents - The particular entities in the world to which some expression refers to - Garfield, Felix, Fluffy are all referents of the expression cat - The collection of all referents of an expression is its reference Meanings of Words - Dictionary-Style Definitions o Defines words in terms od other words, but that also reflects the way that speakers of a language really use that word - Mental Image Definitionso Words often seem to conjure up particular mental


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UGA LING 2100 - Exam 3 Study Guide

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