48 Cards in this Set
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fermentation
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partial degradation of sugars that occurs w/o O2
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aerobic respiration
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consumes organic molecules + O2 and yields ATP
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anaerobic respiration
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similar to aerobic respiration, but consumes compounds other than O2 (ex. SO4^2-, NO3-, S)
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glycolysis
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breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
-occurs in cytoplasm
-occurs whether or not O2 is present
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two phases of glycolysis
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1. energy investment phase
2. energy payoff phase
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net result of glycolysis
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2x ATP (2x invested, 4x returned)
2x NADH
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net result of pyruvate oxidation
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2x NADH
2x CO2
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Net result of Kreb's Cycle
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2x ATP
6x NADH
2x FADH2
4x CO2
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anaerobic respiration
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uses an e- transport chain w. a final e- acceptor other than O2
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fermentation
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uses a substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an e- transport chain to generate ATP
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photosynthesis
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-reverses the direction of e- flow compared to respiration
-is a redox process in which H2 is oxidized and CO2 is reduced
-an endergonic process; the energy boost is provided by light
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light rxns
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-split H2O
-Release O2
-Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
- Generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation
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calvin cycle
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-in stroma
-forms sugar from CO2, using ATP and NADPH
-begins w/ carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
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photorespiration
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initial fixation of CO2, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon compound (3-photophosphoglycerate)
-rubisco adds O2 instead of CO2 in the calvin cycle, producing two-carbon compound
-consumes O2 and organic fuel and releases CO2 w/o producing ATP or sugar
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C4 plants
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minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into four-carbon compounds in mesophyll cells--> requiring PEP carboxylase
-PEP carboxylase can fix CO2 even when CO2 concentrations are low
-These four-carbon compounds are exported to bundle-sheath cells, where they release CO…
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CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plants
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-open their stromata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic cells
-stromata close during day, and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in the Calvin Cycle
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local signaling
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cells in a multicellular organism communicate by chemical messengers
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local regulators
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paracrine, synaptic
-messenger molecules that travel on short distances
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hormones
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chemicals used in long distance signaling
-endocrine
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3 types of membrane receptors
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1. g protein-coupled receptors (GPCR)
2. receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK)
3. ion channel receptors
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second messengers
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small nonprotein, water soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion
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cAMP and Ca2+
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common secondary messengers
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response 4 aspects:
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1. amplifying the signal (thus the response)
2. specificity of the response
3. overall efficiency of response, enhanced by scaffolding proteins
4.termination of signal
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why cells divide
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-development of a fertilized egg
-growth
-repair
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M phase
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mitosis, cytokinesis
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interphase
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cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division
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5 phases of mitosis
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1. prophase
2. prometaphase
3. metaphase
4. anaphase
5. telophase
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binary fission
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cell division in which prokaryotes reproduce
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origin of replication
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the place where the chromosome begins replicating in binary fission
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cell cycle control system
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regulated by both internal and external controls
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asexual reproduction
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a single individual passes genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes
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clone
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a group of genetically identical individuals from the same paretn
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sexual reproduction
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two parents give ride to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents
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Meiosis 1
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homologs pair up and separate, resulting in two haploid daughter cells with replicated chromosomes
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Meiosis 2
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sister chromatids separate
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result of meiosis
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4 haploid daughter cells with unreplicated chromosomes
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random fertilization
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adds to genetic variation b/c any sperm can fuse w/ any ovum
-fusion of two gametes produces a zygote w/ any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations
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mendel's model
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1. alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters
2. for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent
3. if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organisms's appearance, and the other (the…
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Law of segregation
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two alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes
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Law of independent assortment
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each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation
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complete dominance
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when phenotype of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical
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incomplete dominance
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phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties
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codominance
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two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways
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multiple alleles
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most genes exist in populations in more than two allelic forms
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pleitropy
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most genes have multiple phenotypic effects
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epistasis
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a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus
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quantitative characters
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those that vary in the population along the continuum
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polygenic inheritance
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an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype
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BIOL 240: EXAM 2