69 Cards in this Set
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memory
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the mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information.
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explicit use of memory
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a conscious effort to encode or recover information through memory processes.
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implicit uses of memory
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availability of information through memory processes without conscious effort to encode or recover information.
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declarative memory
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memory for information such as facts an d events.
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procedural memory
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memory for how things get done; the way perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used.
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encoding
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the process by which a mental representation is formed in memory.
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storage
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the retention of encoded material over time.
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retrieval
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the recovery of stored information from memory.
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What is the difference between explicit and implicit uses of memory?
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explicit uses of memory involve conscious effort, whereas implicit uses of memory do not.
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Suppose you are a skilled juggler. Does your skill rely more on declarative or procedural memory?
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your skill relies more on procedural memory.
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You suddenly can't remember the password for your email account. Which memory process is most likely to be causing the difficulty?
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because you've previously encoded and stored your password, it's most likely your problem is with retrieval.
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iconic memory
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memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations.
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short-term memory (STM)
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memory processes associated with preservation of recent experiences and with retrieval of information from long-term memory; short-term memory is of limited capacity and stores information for only a short length of time without rehearsal.
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chunking
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the process of taking single items of information and recoding them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle.
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working memory
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a memory resource that is used to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension; consists of the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.
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Alan Baddeley
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he proposed the four components of working memory.
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long-term memory (LTM)
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memory processes associated with the preservation of information for retrieval at any later time.
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retrieval cue
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an internally or externally generated stimulus available to help with the retrieval of a memory.
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Why do researchers believe that the capacity of iconic memory is large?
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George Sperling's studies show that comparisons of the whole- and partial-report procedures indicate that people have very brief access to all of the information in a display.
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What is the contemporary estimate of the capacity of short-term memory?
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researchers believe that the capacity of STM is in the range of three to five items.
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What does it mean to chunk some group of items?
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chunking is the process of reconfiguring items into meaningful groups.
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What are the components of working memory?
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working memory includes the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the episodic buffer.
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recall
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a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to reproduce the information previously presented.
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recognition
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a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimuli as having been experienced before.
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Endel Tulving
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he first proposed the distinction between episodic and semantic types of declarative memories.
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episodic memory
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long-term memory for an autobiographical event and the context in which it occurred.
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semantic memory
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generic, categorical memory, such as the meaning of words and concepts.
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encoding specificity
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the principle that subsequent retrieval of information is enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding.
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serial position effect
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a characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items appearing in the middle.
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primacy effect
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improved memory for items at the start of a list.
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recency effect
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improved memory for items at the end of a list.
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temporal distinctiveness
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the extent to which a particular item stands out from or is distinct from other items in time.
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transfer-appropriate processing
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the perspective that suggests that memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the processes carried out at retrieval.
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levels-of-processing theory
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a theory that suggests that the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained in memory.
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priming
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in the assessment of implicit memory, the advantage conferred by prior exposure to a word or situation.
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Hermann Ebbinghaus
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he pioneered the study of forgetting with his study that lead to the forgetting curve.
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proactive interference
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circumstances in which past memories make it more difficult to encode and retrieve new information.
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retroactive interference
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circumstances in which the formation of new memories makes it difficult to recover older memories.
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elaborative rehearsal
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a technique for improving memory by enriching the encoding of information.
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mnemonic
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a strategy or device that uses familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to the information in memory.
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metamemory
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implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies; cognition about memory.
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J. T. Hart
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he pioneered research on feelings-of-knowing.
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Do circumstances of recall or recognition generally provide more retrieval cues?
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recognition generally provides more retrieval cues.
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At a party, why might you have the best recall of the first person to whom you spoke?
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this is an example of the primacy effect in serial recall.
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What does the perspective known as transfer-appropriate processing suggest?
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transfer-appropriate processing suggests that memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the type of processing carried out at retrieval.
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For your English class, you memorize "The Raven." When you're done, you can no longer recite last week's assignment. Is this an example of proactive or retroactive interference?
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these circumstances provide an example of retroactive interference because new information has made it harder to remember older information.
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How could you use the method loci to remember the order of elements in the periodic table?
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beginning with hydrogen, you associate each element with a position along a familiar route.
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What is a judgment of learning?
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judgments of learning (JOLs) are people's estimates of how well they have learned information.
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concepts
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mental representation of a kind or category of items and ideas.
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basic level
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the level of categorization that can be retrieved from memory most quickly and used most efficiently.
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schema
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general conceptual framework, or cluster of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations; knowledge package that encodes generalizations about the structure of the environment.
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prototype
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the most representative example of a category.
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exemplar
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member of a category that people have encountered.
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reconstructive memory
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the process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation.
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Sir Frederic Bartlett
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he undertook a program of research to demonstrate how individuals' prior knowledge influence the way they remembered new information (reconstructive memory).
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flashbulb memories
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people's vivid and richly detailed memory in response to personal or public events that have great emotional significance.
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Elizabeth Loftus
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she and her colleagues performed influential studies on eyewitness memory.
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What is the relationship between categories and concepts?
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concepts are the mental representations of the categories you form.
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What claim is made by the exemplar theory of categorization?
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the exemplar theory claims that people categorize new objects by comparing them to the exemplars they have stored in memory.
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On Frederic Bartlett's account, what three processes create distortions in reconstructive memory?
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he identified the processes of leveling, sharpening, and assimilating.
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How did Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues demonstrate misinformation effects?
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Loftus and her colleagues demonstrated that people will include incorrect postevent information when they attempt to remember events.
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Karl Lashley
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he pioneered work on the anatomy of memory by searching for the engram.
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engram
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the physical memory trace for information in the brain.
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amnesia
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a failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma.
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anterograde amnesia
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an inability to form explicit memories for events that occur after the time of physical damage to the brain.
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retrograde amnesia
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an inability to retrieve memories from the time before physical damage to the brain.
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What did Karl Lashley conclude about the location of the engram?
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Lashley concluded that the engram did not exist in any localized regions but was widely distributed throughout the brain.
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What has been learned about the impairment of implicit memory for individuals with amnesia?
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research suggests that important aspects of implicit memory will often be spare for individuals who have amnesia for explicit memories.
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What have PET studies indicated about the brain bases of encoding and retrieval of episodic information?
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PET scans reveal that different areas of the brain are disproportionately active for encoding and retrieval; the left prefrontal cortex for encoding and the right prefrontal cortex for retrieval.
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PSY 101: Exam 4