BIO 1201: Final Exam
87 Cards in this Set
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molecule telomerase is a
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enzyme
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telomeres are composed of
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DNA base pairs
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HPV
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-virus that infects human skin and mucosal cells
-most common sexually transmitted infections
-most cases resolve over time and produce no symptoms
- some go on to produce genital warts, cervical and other cancers
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Prevalence of HPV
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-20 million in the US infected at any time
-75% of people between ages 15-49 have been infected at some point in their lives
-infection likelihood increases with certain sexual behaviors
-responsible for 25,000 cases of cancer per year in US
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Are Viruses "Alive"?
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Have:
- DNA or RNA
- proteins
- a few lipids
- ability to replicate
Don't Have:
- no membranes
- no ribosomes
- no metabolic machinery
- need a host to replicate
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Five Basic Steps of Viral Replication
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1) attachment: virus binds cell surface receptor
2) penetration: viral nucleic acid is released inside host cell
3) synthesis: host cell makes viral nucleic acids and proteins
4) assembly: new viruses are assembled from newly synthesized coat proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids
5) re…
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prophage
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viral DNA incorporated in host chromosomes
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Lytic Pathway (quick)
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many viral particles are made and copies are sent back into the environment. A virus is found in this phase when conditions are favorable, i.e. when bacteria is "growing like crazy"
1) the virus attaches to bacteria (host)
2) the virus inserts DNA into the bacteria
3) the virus takes…
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Lysogenic Pathway (delayed)
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there is no pathology. A virus is found at this stage under harsh conditions. The virus is a prophage at this state.
1) the virus binds to bacteria (host)
2) the virus inserts its DNA into the bacteria
3) the viral DNA gets incorporated into the cell's chromosome
4) viral DNA is rep…
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how does HPV progress from infection to cancer?
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over time precancerous and cancerous changes in epithlial cells
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mitosis
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cell division; creation of two identical daughter cells from a parent cell
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Steps of Mitosis
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cell at interphase
1) prophase
2) metaphase
3) anaphase
4) telophase
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cell division is tightly regulated
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cell cycle checkpoints- during the cell cycle, a system of checkpoints regulates a cell's progress. Checkpoints prevent a cell from progressing to the next stage until it accurately finishes the current stage.
apoptosis- when a normal cell sustains irreparable damage, it undergoes prog…
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Cancer: when checkpoints fail
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cancer cells have damaged checkpoint mechanisms, which enable them to divide when they should not. this means that DNA damage or errors in chromosome separation are passed on to daughter cells. these damaged cells also bypass apoptosis. with each cell division, the damage is perpetuated a…
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so how exactly does HPV cause cervical cancer?
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-virus produces oncoproteins that inhibit the cell's p53 tumor protein
-with the "brakes" removed, the cell divides uncontrollably
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oncogenes
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genes that cause cancer
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proto-oncogenes
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genes that can become oncogenes under certain conditions
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Gardasil
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-approved by FDA in 2006
-targets HPV strains responsible for 70% of cervical cancers and 90% of genital warts cases
-170 million does worldwide as of April 2014
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Cervarix
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-approved by FDA in 2009
-targets HPV strains responsible for 70% of cervical cancers
- contains a proprietary immune system booster for higher antibody levels against the virus
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Vaccine Criticisms
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- only provide protection for about 7-8 years
- some have claimed the vaccine causes mental retardation. CDC reports no connection
- FDA and CDC data indicate that the incidence rates for diseases purportedly caused by the vaccine do not exceed rates for those in the general population
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HPV Vaccine Side Effects
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-pain, redness and swelling at the injection site
-joint pain, muscle pain, tiredness and headaches
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why would someone want to live much longer than the average human does today?
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-avoid pain and discomfort that comes with advancing age
-to see key events in their families lives that they wouldn't otherwise see
-to see the progress of their personal or career efforts at a new process, business or invention
-to watch your money or investments grow for a longer pe…
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Major Theories of Aging
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Immunological Theory: immune system is preset to decline by an internal biological clock
Inflammation Theory: long-term stress causes inflammation that causes failure of major organs
DNA Theory: the continuity of life depends on the inheriting DNA
-damage by free radicals
-inherit…
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DNA is made of Two Strands of Nucleotides
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sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base
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Sensescence
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is a process by which cells or an organism deteriorate with increasing age, thus increasing the probability of death
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What age retarding products and therapies have been tried?
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Dietary Supplements
-anti-oxidants (Vitamins A, C, E; melatonin)
-minerals (selenium and zinc)
Dieting Plans
-no food or concoction/combination of foods has been scientifically shown to extend maximum life span in humans
Caloric Restriction (~1,500 calories/day or less)
-under-nutri…
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Major Pushes in Life Extension Research
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Rapamycin and Resveratrol
-known as a caloric restriction (CR) mimics
-shown to increase lifespan in yeast, worms, flies, mice
-downsides: immune system suppression and diabetes
Telomerase Enzyme
-extends the length of the telomeres at the ends of chromosomes
-mice engineered to pos…
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What cells possess the most telomerase?
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stem cells
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Specialized Cells Express Different Genes
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Every cell in your body has the same genes or genome. What distinguishes one cell type from another is the pattern of gene expression and, consequently,the proteins each cell makes.
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Stem Cells in Tissues Have Regenerative Properties
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stem cells in various tissues divide to produce more stem cells and the specialization cells that make up that tissue. In this way, stem cells help keep the tissues in which they reside healthy
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Cells are organized into tissues, organs, and systems
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stem cells produce specialized cells that are organized to allow complex human functions. cells are specialized to perform specific functions within a tissue.
tissues are combined to perform the complex functions of each organ.
several organs contribute to the functions of a body's sy…
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embryonic vs. adult stem cells
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embryonic: pluripotent, can differentiate into any cell
adult: not pluripotent, can only differentiate into own lineage
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Induced Stem Cells
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stem cells induced to become more like embryonic stem cells by adding stem cell transcription factors
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a bacteriophage is this type of virus
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DNA virus
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the simplest virus is little more than a nucleic acid surrounded by a ________ coat
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protein
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HPV is this type of virus
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DNA virus
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A prophage is always associated with this type of viral life cycle
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lysogenic
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the HPV virus uses this form of the two possible viral life cycles to replicate itself
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lysogenic
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HIV uses this enzyme to back-transcribe its RNA into DNA
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reverse transcription
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one defective gene implicated in the accelerated aging disease known as Werner Syndrome acts by disabling an _____ known as _____ responsible for breaking the _____ bonds that hold the two strands of DNA together
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enzyme, helicase, hydrogen
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In the cell cycle, the point of no return at which time the cell has made the irreversible decision to divide begins at
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G1
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These stem cells are extracted from the blastocyst stage of an embryo
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pluripotent
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This type of stem cells have already differentiated and have been redirected using specific genes and proteins to form other tissue types
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induced stem cells
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These stem cells originate from the zygote (fertilized egg) or very early embryo state of development
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totipotent stem cells
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These are the most flexible, undifferentiated of the stem cell types
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totipotent stem cells
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These stem cells reside in specific tissue types as a small pool of cells capable of repairing old or damaged cells
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multipotent stem cells
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To make a chromosome, you wrap ___________ around _________ to make ___________ then compact it all together
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DNA, histones, nucleosomes
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What stage(s) or phases(s) of the cell cycle could a cell be in if its chromosomes are in their duplicated state?
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S phase
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The two primary theories of aging that we examined in most detail are _______________
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DNA damage theory & telomere theory
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The first step in viral replication to be delayed in the lysogenic cycle is __________________
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attachment
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If the Y chromosome is so small, what makes it so important to the human genome?
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-it will provide the genetic information that transforms undifferentiated gonads into testes
-it has a number of genes that regulate expression of genes found on autosomes
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Which sex chromosome arrangement has never been known to produce a viable fetus in humans?
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Y
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Why was the cloning of Dolly the Sheep such a big deal?
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She was the first clone to be produced using the nucleus from a donor udder cell.
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If you wanted to avoid the destruction of embryos in therapeutic cloning, what other source of cells could you use?
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induced pluripotent stem cells
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What is the earliest point at which sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen) begin to 'masculinize' or 'feminize' the brain in human sexual development?
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the first 7-8 weeks of fetal development
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The best estimate of the number of genes in the human genome is _____________
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21,000
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What two features are used to distinguish fragments generated in the Sanger method of DNA sequencing?
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-the terminal base on each fragment
-the length of the fragments
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Why is is harder to clone primates compared to other mammals?
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the spindle proteins in the cytoplasm are located closer to the nucleus
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Sickle cell disease is an example of autosomal dominant inheritance and codes for a defective protein affecting the shape of red blood cells. If both the mother and father are heterozygous for this trait, what percentage of the offspring will be carriers for this disease?
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0%
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Choose all the ways that the polymerase chain reaction is different from the process of DNA replication within a human cell
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-it uses an alternative form of DNA polymerase
-it produces multiple copies of DNA versus just making one copy as a dividing cell does
-it uses heat instead of a helicase enzyme to separate the DNA strands
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These stem cells reside in specific tissue types as a small pool of cells capable of repairing old or damaged cells
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multipotent stem cells
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These stem cells are extracted from the blastocyst stage of an embryo
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pluripotent
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These stem cells originate from the zygote (fertilized egg) or very early embryo state of development
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totipotent stem cells
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This type of stem cells have already differentiated and have been redirected using specific genes and proteins to form other tissue types
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induced stem cells
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These are the most flexible, undifferentiated of the stem cell types
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totipotent stem cells
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David Brimer
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penis was destroyed in a circumcision, doctors created a "vagina" - was rasied a girl
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ploidy
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# of complete sets of chromosomes
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gene
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segemnet of DNA along chromosome
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locus
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position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs
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allele
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an alternate molecular form of a gene
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homozygous
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both alleles of a given gene pair are the same
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heterozygous
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indicate that a gene within a diploid individual is filled with two different alleles
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Meiosis I
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diploid cells with homologous replicated chromosomes separate and their # is halved so the resulting cells are haploid
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Meiosis II
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two haploid daughter cells undergo a second division. mechanically similar to mitosis
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chromosome 23
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determines gender
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is the x or y chromosome larger
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X is larger
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genome
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genetic material of an organism
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mitochondria
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an organelle found in large numbers in most cells
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traits of mitochondrial DNA
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circular, single stranded, maternally inherited, haploid
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difference between a GMO and a transgenic organism
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GMO: an organism that has acquired 1 or more genes through artificial means
transgenic organism: contains a gene from another organism typically of another species
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what is Bt corn?
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a gene for bacterial toxin, repels/kills certain insects
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explain the process of cloning Dolly
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1) took nucleus out of donor egg
2) took nucleus out of donor udder cell
3) put udder nucleus in donor egg
4) implanted egg in surrogate mother
5) Baby Dolly grew in mother and was born
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two types of cloning
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therapeutic and reproductive
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What are the three types of stem cells? Why do you wait to harvest stem cells from a blastocyst, rather than a very early embryo?
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Totipotent, pleuripotent, and multipotent. They wait and get pleuripotent stem cells from a blastocyst because, although they are more differentiated, there are more of them.
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What about some downsides to cloning?
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Destroy some embryos, ethics, is a cloned person really their own individual
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Why are primates so difficult to clone?
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The spindle proteins are very close to the nucleus, so when enucleating the donor egg, it is hard to avoid damaging the spindle
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What is the alternative to embryonic stem cells?
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Induced stem cells (although embryonic stem cells are better quality)
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BIO 1201: Final Exam