PSYC 407 1nd Edition Lecture 5 Outline of Last Lecture I. AssessmentsII. Key ConceptsIII.Reliability vs. ValidityIV. Projection and Objective Tests.V. Psychophysiological AssessmentVI. DSM vs. Dimensional ApproachOutline of Current Lecture I. Continuation of DMS II. Introduction to Conducting ResearchIII. Statistical vs. Clinical SignificanceIV. Research by Correlation vs. Research by ExperimentV. Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal vs. sequentialCurrent LectureThe DSM-IV-TRBasic characteristicsI. Five axes – full clinical presentation II. Clear inclusion and exclusion criteria for disordersIII. Disorders are categorized under broad headingsIV. Empirically-grounded, prototypic approach to classification• The five DSM-IV-TR AxesI. Axis I Principal DiagnosisII. Axis II Personality Disorders and MRIII. Axis III Medical ConcernsIV. Axis IV Social and Environmental StressorsV. Axis V GAF* (on a scale of 0-100, the greatest level of overall functioning) These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.*Global Assessment of FunctioningUnresolved Issues in the DSM-IV-TR• ComorbidityI. Defined as two or more disorders for the same personII. High comorbidity is the rule, clinicallyIII. Threatens the validity of separate diagnoses• Labeling issues and stigmatization• Line between normal and abnormalDSM-5 Changes- Two Axes:- Principal Dx- Psychosocial Stressors- Codes more similar to ICD- Axis V replaced with continuous severity rating- Considered organizing by cause but knowledge still incomplete- Moved some disorders around- Added some new diagnosesConducting Research in Psychopathology• Questions driving a science of psychopathologyI. What problems cause distress or impair functioning? II. Why do people behave in unusual ways? III. How can we help people behave in more adaptive ways? • Theories and hypotheses are developed from these questions that we want to test.Basic Components of ResearchResearch design– A method to test hypotheses Some terms:– Independent variable• The variable that causes or influences behavior– Dependent variable • The behavior influenced by the independent variable– Significance• Did our results occur by chance?Statistical vs. Clinical Significance• Statistical vs. clinical significance– Statistical significance – are results due to chance?– Clinical significance – are results clinically meaningful? Is the statistical differencelarge enough to matter in treatment?– Statistical significance does not imply clinical meaningfulnessStudying Individual Cases• Case study method– Extensive observation and detailed description of ONE client• Limitations– Lacks scientific rigor and suitable controls– Often entails numerous confounds (validity questionable)• Benefits– Rich data– Helps generate new hypothesesResearch by Correlation• The nature of correlation– Statistical relation between two or more variables– No independent variable is manipulated– Range from –1.0 to 0 to +1.0– Negative vs. positive correlation• Examples:– Do people who report feeling depressed also have more anxiety? Is schizophrenia related to social class?• Limitations– Does not imply causation– Epidemiological research – an example of the correlational method because they look at how variables relate to each other without any manipulation of the variables.– Incidence, prevalence, and course of disordersResearch by Experiment• Nature of experimental research(Attempt to establish causal relations)– Manipulation of independent variables-- Random assignment to different groups (one a control group)– Measure the dependent variable– Differences between conditions called experimental effectExample of Experimental DesignHow does emotional expression relate to health?o 50 undergraduates came to a lab for 4 days. Each day HALF the students wrote about a past traumatic event (including deep thoughts and feelings). The other half wrote about their plans for the rest of the day. - The dependent variable was trips to the health center. (in a 2-month period around the study)RESULTS?- The number of visits declined for the students who wrote about deep feelings and increased for the students who wrote about plans. o (Pennebaker et al, 1988)Genetic Research Strategies• Behavioral genetics – Interaction between genes, experience, and behavior• Strategies used in genetic research– Family studies – behaviors/emotional traits in family members– Adoptee studies – separate environmental from genetic factors– Twin studies – psychopathology in fraternal vs. identical twinsStudying Behavior Over Time• Rationale and overview– How does the problem or behavior change over time?– Important in prevention and treatment research– Cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequentialCross-Sectional: The Cohort EffectTime: 09/05/59 Avg IQ Score20 yr.olds 11040 yr.olds 10660 yr.olds 94• Looks like the 60 year-olds. Some believed that this showed that IQs decline with time.• However there is a confound, another explanation………..• In these early studies the 60 year olds had had less education and less familiarity with the items on an IQ test. Their whole cohort (birth year group) experienced this, thus thelower scores not due to effects of aging but due to a cohort effect.• So they did longitudinal studies…….Longitudinal DesignsTimes: 09/05/59 09/05/79 09/05/99subject 1 110 111 117subject 2 112 109 112subject 3 118 120 124subject 4 120 118 122subject 5 109 120 119subject 6 111 113 110The longitudinal studies showed that IQs DO NOT routinely decline with time.Sequential DesignsIdeal design to study something happening over time, but expensive and difficult to do…..Repeated study of different cohorts over timeTime 1 (1990) Time 2 (2000) Time 3 (2010) 20 y/o 30 y/o 40 y/o 30 y/o 40 y/o ------- 40y/o ------- ------------ 20 y/o 30 y/o----- ------- 20 y/oStudying Behavior Across Cultures• Value of cross-cultural research– Overcoming ethnocentric research • Assets and liabilities of cross cultural research– Assets • To clarify how psychopathology manifests in different ethnic groups – Problems with cross-cultural research• Limited by available measuresResearch Ethics• institutional review boards & the APA ethics code – Role of