PSY 255 1nd EditionExam # 3 Study Guide Lectures: 16-21Lecture 16 (March 31) Motivation• Organizational Psychology: Systematic study of dispositional and situational variables that influence the experiences and behaviors of individuals in organizations– Organizations are as systems, with multiple actors and pressures, that exist in changing environments• Force that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior– Energize = expends effort– Direct = effort to or for something– Sustain = effort persists– Intrinsic vs. extrinsic• Framework: 3 classes of theories– Need–motive–value– Cognitive choice– Self-regulation• Need– Force that organizes perceptions, beliefs, cognitions, and actions– Unfulfilled needs create tension, which we are motivated to reduce• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs– Stage theory• Satisfy lower needs, then move up to next level– 5 classes of needs• Physiological• Safety• Love• Esteem• Self-actualization– Implication: employees are at different levels in the hierarchy and are motivated by different things• Hertzberg’s two-factor theory– Job satisfaction ≠ dissatisfaction– Motivators are related to satisfaction (job content)– Hygienes are related to dissatisfaction (job context)• Job characteristics theory– Five core job dimensions influence three valued psychological states which affect work outcomesCognitive Choice• Equity theory– People compare own input–output ratios to those of others– Inputs– Outputs – Assumptions• We strive to maintain state of equity• Inequity builds tension• We are motivated to reduce tension• As magnitude of inequity increases our motivation to reduce inequity decreases– Reducing inequity can change:• your or others’ inputs• your or others’ outputs• your perceptions of inequity• your comparison other• jobs– Equity sensitivity• Folks differ in terms of sensitivity to over and under-reward; an importantmoderator– Benevolent– Entitled– Equity sensitive– Cognitive Choice– Predicts well in cases of under-reward and not so well in cases of over-reward– Does not predict how inequities are restored nor how comparison others are chosen• on valence, expectancy, and instrumentalityLecture 17 (April 2) Motivation Continued Self-Regulation• Involves goal-directed behavior• Describes how individuals monitor goal striving and adjust behavior accordingly• Predominantly explains goal pursuit– Need-motive-value and cognitive choice = goal choice• Goal setting theory– 4 goal mechanisms• Direct behavior• Energize effort• Increase persistence• Activate knowledge structures– Instantiating a goal leads to:• Activation of relevant info• Inhibition of competing or unrelated info• Increases in self-confidence or -efficacy • Increases in commitment (and persistence)– “Performance highest for self-selected, specific, and difficult goals that are accompanied by feedback”• Assigned goals OK if rationale given• Specific vs. “do your best”• Effort and performance “+” related to goal difficulty (until ability lapses)• Ability and goal commitment as moderators– Piles upon piles upon piles of supportive goal research…• setting specific, difficult goals works• Social cognitive theory– Motivation = cognition X behavior X environment– Self-regulation involves:• Self-observation• Self-evaluation• Self-reactions– Self-efficacy• Belief about one’s capability to successfully attain some goal• High self-efficacy set more difficult goals (‘create’ discrepancies), ↑ goal commitment and persistence– Major criticisms• Assumes that self-regulation is predominantly conscious and intentional• Discrepancy-production (raising standards due to high self-efficacy) rarely occurs• Control theory– Self-regulation involves:• Input (sensed info from environment)• Reference value (desired goal or standard)• Comparator (compares input–goal discrepancies)• Output (resultant behaviors and/or cognitions)– Changing behavior versus changing goals• Feedback loop (output influences input)◦ Goals are organized hierarchically Top Lower level◦ Self-regulation is primarily unconscious and automatic Until major discrepancy is encountered…◦ Self-focus is important Degree to which people are focused on themselves– Two types of goals• Approach goals reduce discrepancies• Avoid goals enlarge discrepancies• Self-Regulation– Major criticisms• Difficult to test––empirical support is sparse– Especially for certain elements (e.g., linkages between higher versus lower order goals)Motivation Applications• Organizational behavior management (OBM)– Uses reinforcement theory to ↑ motivation• Clinical + I-O psychology– Applied behavior analysis• Used to identify maladaptive behavior patterns• ABC model– Antecedents– Behavior– Consequences Organizational behavior management (OBM) Identify and measure to-be-changed behaviors Examine A’s and C’s of targeted behaviors Organizational intervention Remove antecedents that cause undesirable behaviors Set goals for targeted behaviors Link rewards (and perhaps punishment) to those behaviors Evaluation: assess change from baseline Management by objectives (MBO)◦ Applies goal setting to workplace◦ Steps Participative goal-setting Goals = quantifiable indicators of results Goals are prioritized and stipulate specific time periods Develop ‘action plans’ Performance review Performance compared to goals Goal-setting for next time period Management by objectives (MBO)◦ Meta-analysis MBO ↑ performance 97% of the time and mean increase was > 40% Remember: set specific, difficult goals and ensure feedback is available Don’t forget goal commitment and self-efficacy Support of upper-management is needed Job enrichment◦ ↑ motivational potential of jobs via strengthening core job characteristics from JCT◦ Skill variety◦ Task identity & significance◦ Autonomy ◦ Feedback Lecture 18 (April 7) Job Attitudes- Degree of “+” or “–” feeling towards somethingo What’s your attitude regarding the political candidate? university? the last exam?New Zealanders? - Why study them?o They influence behavioro Improving employees’ attitudes is desirable in and of itselfo Attitudes spillover between work and non-work