Tristan Lewis EEMB 102 TA: Natasha 1)Phenetics: The attempt to classify organisms based on overall similar morphology Pros: Some species can be distinguished based off of the if they are closely related or share a very similar genotype. Cons: Sometimes this method doesn't work due to phenotypes being secondarily lost or sometimes characteristics in unrelated organisms are gained through a process called homoplasy. Biological: This is classifying an organism based off the biological components such as genotype and phenotype. This is widely accepted due to how its the gene transfer machine in which genes are passed down to offspring and characteristics change during this. Pros: This is reliable because it has the bottom up approach in which it examines gene expression all the way up to the displayed phenotype to distinguish the relatedness of organisms. Cons: The main disadvantage of this is that it doesn't account for homoplasy in which organisms can gain the same traits in a different way and for different reasons. Ecological: This is the attempt to classify the relatedness of species based off their relationship to other and their surroundings. This takes into account behavior and the environment. Pros: This can be seen as an advantage because often times environments are made for species that have some sort of aspect that is related such as ocean creatures with gills to withdraw the oxygen from the water or beetles and other insects that can reside in harsh environments have a protective coating over their wings called an “elytra”. Cons: The disadvantage to this is that allopatric speciation has caused of related species to diverge and form different characteristics that if this method was used then it would not be considered completely accurate. Pluralistic: The pluralistic view is the idea that species have all relatedness but replicate and diverge from one common phenotype. Pros: This can be used for monophyletic groups in order to determine their relatedness because often times it is a species that spectates from a single common ancestor. Cons: The disadvantage of this is that not all species diverged from the same common ancestor so the relatedness would be considered inaccurate because it would seem as though a species that diverged from ocean creatures for example could have diverged from something else. 2) The three main kinds of speciation are allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation, and parametric speciation. Allopatric speciation: This is a kind of speciation in which a physical barrier divided populations of the same species and due to this physical barrier the species developed different characteristics from one another. Sympatric speciation: This is a kind of speciation that isn't due to a physical barrier but rather a certain adaptation that becomes advantageous and gets reproduced.Parapatric speciation: This is a kind of speciation that is sort of a hybrid between sympatric and allopatric in which species diverge and speciate in extreme conditions that can be environmentally related but do not form a physical isolating barrier. Allopatry is the most common in nature due to how the environment is always changing and it provides a definite divergent event rather where sympatry relies on an individual mutation and parapatric relies on extreme conditions. 3) Punctuated equilibrium is the evolutionary change that is in rapid bursts of change. Phyletic gradualism is the slow evolution. An example of punctuated equilibrium is a species of sea animals and when the sea level changes the animals must quickly adapt. An example of phyletic gradualism is a tiger evolving over time to be better at hiding in tall grass. 4) Adaptive radiation is the diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches. Non-Adaptive radiation is the lineage diversification with minimal ecological diversification. The main difference between the two is that non-adaptive radiation doesn't lead to new niches or roles in the ecosystem being established. A cause for non-adaptive radiation can be allopatric speciation. 5) ((Species A, Species B), (Species C, Species D)) 6) Criteria 1: A new habitat has to be opened up. This can be tested in a lab by artificially creating a new habitat and monitoring. Criteria 2: The new habitat is relatively isolated This can be tested by just looking at the geography of the new habitat or by measuring the amount of migrators who enter the population to see if it really is isolated from other life forms. Criteria 3: The new colony has wide availability of niche space. This can be tested by putting organisms into an artificial habitat like in criteria 1 or by observing an environment, understanding the roles of organisms in each environment, and then finding a role thats relatively unoccupied, implementing a species and observing if it radiates. 7) Adaptive zone: This is defined as a zone that has equal opportunity for the development of adaptive radiation. Non-adaptive radiation: This is a lineage diversification that results in little ecological diversification. Adaptive radiation: The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches. 8) Examples of adaptive radiation can include jungle organisms that have to adapt when forests get cut down to the increased amount of sunlight or ocean organisms that must adapt quickly to change in water levels. 9) Key Innovation: A novel phenotypic trait that allows subsequent radiation and success of a taxonomic group. An example of this is the fourth cusp of mammalian molars that allowed early ancestors to digest their generalized diet. Also, in plants the development of nectar spurs. 10) Adaptive radiation fit into the scope of natural selection due to how it is how changes in environments are dealt with by animals. It isn't necessarily natural selection due to how its not choosing one trait over another but rather adapting to get a trait that allows an organism to survive.11) Stasis was largely ignored due to how Darwin had popularized the idea of gradual evolutionary change. 12) -Incomplete fossil record -Constraint -Stabilizing selection 13) Punctuated equilibrium is the theory that proposed that once species will appear in the fossil record and become stable showing little evolutionary change for most of its