EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDEBIO 243February 12, 2014Chapter 1I. Anatomical Planesa. Frontal/Coronal  Divides body into anterior/posteriorb. Midsagittal  Divides the body into equal left and right portionsc. Transverse  Divides the body into superior/inferiord. Standard Anatomical Position  palms facing out with pinkies close to side, toes pointed straight ahead, standing up (posterior/inferior)II. Body Cavitiesa. Dorsal body cavityi. Encompasses key parts of nervous system  brain/spinal cordii. Superior: Cranial cavity (brain)iii. Inferior: Vertebral/spinal cavity (spinal cord)b. Ventral body cavityi. Superior: Thoracicii. Inferior: Abdominalpelvic cavity1. Abdominal cavity: Small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, pancreas, stomach2. Pelvic cavity: Genitals, urinary bladder, rectumIII. Directional Termsa. Superior vs. Inferior  Above/Belowb. Anterior vs. Posterior  Front/Backc. Ventral vs. Dorsal  Related to cavitiesd. Medial vs. Lateral  Midline/Sidese. Proximal vs. Distal  Closest/Farthest from attachment pointf. Superficial vs. Deep  Surface vs. Deeper portions of bodyIV. Homeostasisa. Definitioni. PowerPoint: Maintenance of stable internal conditions despite changing external conditionsii. Textbook: Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuouslyb. Components of Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanismsi. Receptor: Detects the change within your body and responds by sending input to control center. Input flows from the receptor to the control center along the a fferent pathwayii. Control center: Determines the set point, which is the level the variable has to be maintained. Also analyzes the input and determines the appropriate response or course of action.Output then flows from the control center to the effector along the e fferent pathwayiii. Effector: Sends output to the stimulus to either reduce (negative feedback) so control process is shut off, or enhance it (positive feedback) so process continues at a faster rateV. Positive and Negative Feedback Mechanismsa. Negative Feedback Characteristics and Examplesi. Response reduces or shuts off stimulusii. Regulation of body temperature, control of glucose by insulinb. Positive Feedback Characteristics and Examplesi. Response enhances original stimulusii. Labor contractions, blood clottingVI. Human Organ Systemsa. Respiratory Systemb. Nervous Systemc. Endocrine Systemd. Lymphatic Systeme. Integumentary Systemf. Skeletal Systemg. Cardiovascular Systemh. Digestive Systemi. Urinary Systemj. Reproductive Systemk. Muscular SystemChapter 2I. Atoms/Atomic Structure/Elementsa. Atoms are electrically neutral, strictly speaking, equal number of protons and electrons; building blocks of elementsb. Atomic structure is the anatomy of atoms, structure of an atom determines its functioni. Protons contribute mass to an atomii. Neutrons contribute mass and do not have a charge – neutraliii. Electrons contribute mass, but it’s the smallest amount; negative charge1. Interaction of electronsa. Shells of electrons that surround the nucleusi. Atoms can have up to 7 electron shellsii. Electrons will fill in order from shell closest to nucleusb. Valence shell = most external shelli. Electrons that determine the chemical properties and the types of chemical bonds that atom can makec. 2n^2 = general formula for how many electrons in an electron shelld. Rule of 8 = atoms are stable if their shell has 8 electrons; first shell, stable with 2 electrons. Second electron shell, 8 electrons; third electron shell; c. Elements can not be broken down into a simpler substance using normal chemical meansi. Identifying Elements1. Atomic Number = # of protons2. Mass number = Protons + Neutrons3. Isotopes = alternate forms that vary in accordance to the number of neutrons4. Radioisotopes = have large unstable nuclei; atoms need to be stable, C14 is a radioisotope  emits subatomic particles in order to try to be stablea. Half-life = the amount of time it takes for a radioisotope to decay5. Atomic Weight = reflects the average mass in the atomii. Four elements (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) make up 96% of body weightII. Chemical Bondsa. Covalent Bondsi. Strongest chemical bondsii. Electrons shared between atoms in order to achieve stability (octet rule)iii. Single, double, triple bonds1. If two atoms atoms share two pairs of electrons = double covalent bond; and so on.iv. Polar vs. Non-Polar1. Polar covalent bond = one end has a positive charge and one end has a negative chargeb. Ionic Bondsi. Formed when valence electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another1. Cations = atom that loses electrons, positive charge2. Anions = atom that gains electrons, negative chargec. Hydrogen Bondsi. Weakest bondsii. Formed between one hydrogen atom, already linked to an electronegative atom, and another electronegative atom (such as nitrogen or oxygen), which binds together different molecules or different parts of the same moleculeIII. Chemical Reactionsa. Reactants  Productsi. Matter can neither be created nor destroyedb. Types of Chemical Reactionsi. Synthesis1. Anabolic = constructivea. Ex: joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules2. Always involves bond formation3. A + B  AB4. Example: Dehydration (condensation) reactionii. Decomposition1. Catabolic = destructivea. Occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms2. AB  A + B3. Always involves bonds breaking4. Example: Hydrolysisiii. Exchange (Displacement) reactions1. Both synthesis and decompositiona. Bonds are both made and broken2. Parts of the reactant molecules change places a. AB + C  AC + B3. Example: when ATP reacts with glucose and transfers itsend phosphate group to glucose, forming glucose-phosphateiv. Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) reactions1. Decomposition because they are the basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy; Exchange reaction because electrons are exchanged between the reactants2. LEO says GERa. Loss Electrons  Oxidizedb. Gain Electrons  Reduced3. Often involves gain/loss of hydrogen atoms4. Example: Ionic compounds are formed such as NaCl – sodium loses an electron to chlorineIV. Lipidsa. Hydrophobici. Can dissolve in fats or organic solvents, but not in waterii. Cell membranes, hormones, etc.iii. Triglycerides1. Composed of fatty acid chains and glycerol.