Biology 211 Exam 4 Study GuideChapter 251. What is the difference between essential and nonessential nutrients?2. What is the difference between macronutrients and micronutrients?3. Can the body synthesize any of the macronutrients for itself?4. Can the body synthesize any of the micronutrients?5. How much energy is contained in a gram of each class of macronutrients? 6. What carbohydrate is the major source of energy in the body?7. What is the storage form of glucose? Uh huh, but what happens after all the glycogen storage places are filled up and you still have excess glucose - how is excess glucose stored then?8. How are fructose and galactose utilized as energy sources (what must happen to them first)?9. What are lipids essential for?10.What is the storage form of fat?11.What are the 2 major components of triglycerides?12.What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?13.How are fats transported in the blood?14.What is the major function of each class of lipoprotein?15.What is cholesterol needed for?16.Is the body's supply of cholesterol provided primarily by the diet or is it mostly synthesized?17.What organ is responsible for the majority of cholesterol metabolism?18.What is the effect of dietary saturated fat on cholesterol synthesis?19.What is the effect of dietary unsaturated fat on cholesterol synthesis?20.What are essential amino acids (why are they essential, not list them)?21.What is a complete protein (in terms of diet)?22.How are proteins used for energy?23.Why is protein as an energy source harder on the body than carbohydrate?24.What is meant by the terms positive and negative nitrogen balance?25.Vitamins: Know the fat soluble vs the water soluble.26.Why are excess fat soluble vitamins potentialy toxic?27.Why are excess water soluble vitamins usually not toxic?28.What is the most important function of water soluble vitamins?29.Be able to match the vitamins to the diseases their deficiencies cause (on handout)30.Which vitamins are part of NAD and FAD?31.What are minerals used for?32.What are the 3 stages of metabolism and what happens in each?33.What is cellular respiration?34.What are redox reactions?35.What does oxidation do? Does it require oxygen or can something else do it?36.What does reduction mean?37.What is the difference between substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?38.Where does glycolysis occur39.Does glycolysis require oxygen?40.What is the starting material for the glycolytic reactions?41.What are the end products?42.What happens to the electrons carried by NADH and pyruvate if oxygen is not present?43.What is the prep step, or transition reaction that occurs before the product of glycolysis can enter the Krebs cycle?44.Where does this occur?45.What are the end products of this reaction?46.Is oxygen required?47.What is the starting material for the Krebs cycle?1Biology 211 Exam 4 Study Guide48.Where does the Krebs cycle occur?49.Does the Krebs cycle require oxygen?50.How many molecules of starting material does one molecule of glucose provide to the Krebs cycle?51.What are the products of the Krebs cycle?52.What things besides glucose may provide starting material for the Krebs cycle?53.What is the electron transport chain?54.Where is it located?55.What is the final electron acceptor?56.What is the final product?57.What is the total amount of ATP generated from the oxidation of one molecule of glucose under aerobic conditions?58.What is the total amount of ATP generated from the oxidation of one molecule of glucose under anaerobic conditions?59.What is glycogenesis?60.What is glycogenolysis?61.What is gluconeogensis?62.Can you make glucose from protein?63.Can you make glucose from fat? Sure you can. Which part of the triglyceride can be made into glucose?64.What is the process by which the fatty acid chains of a triglyceride are metabolized?65.Where does this occur?66.Is oxygen required?67.Steps in protein metabolism:1. Transamination (have to take the amino group off first): a. AA+-ketoglutarate=ketoacid+glutamic acid2. Modification: The keto acid is modified to pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, etc. and used for energy3. Deamination: The glutamic acid that came from adding the amino group (NH3) to -ketoglutarate goes to the liver to be deaminated. The amino group is removed, leaving -ketoglutarate and ammonia (NH3), and ammonia enters the urea cycle.4. Urea cycle: 2 NH3 + CO2  urea + H2O68.What are the effects of insulin?69.What are the effects of glucagon?70.What are the roles of the liver in metabolism?71.What are the three ways heat is lost?72.How is temperature regulated by blood flow?73.Where are the thermoregulatory centers of the brain located?74.What will cause the "thermostat to reset" at a higher temperature (fever)?Chapters 26 and 271. What are the functions of the kidneys?2. What is the functional unit of the kidney?3. Know the sequence of structures as you pass through a nephron.4. What is the difference between secretion, filtration, and reabsorption?5. Where does filtrate formation occur?6. Where does most tubular reabsorption occur?7. Where does secretion occur?8. What factor favors filtrate formation at the glomerulus?9. How does constriction of the efferent and afferent arterioles affect glomerular filtration rate?2Biology 211 Exam 4 Study Guide10.What do the JG cells secrete in response to low blood pressure?11.What hormone regulates the reabsorption of water at the distal portion of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct?12.What does atrial natriuretic peptide do?13.How does aldosterone affect renal tubular reabsorption?14.By what mechanism is water reabsorbed at the renal tubule?15.What process transfers hydrogen ions back to the blood from filtrate?16.What is micturition?17.How does blood sodium concentration affect blood volume?18.What are electrolytes?19.What are the compartments of body water and how much fluid do they contain?20.What is the major cation in extracellular fluid? 21.What is the major anion in extracellular fluid?22.What are the characteristics of a good buffer system?23.What happens in the carbonic acid/sodium bicarbonate buffer system in the presence of a strong base like NaOH?24.What happens in the carbonic acid/sodium bicarbonate buffer system in the presence of a strong acid like HCL?25.What is alkalosis? Acidosis?26.What condition occurs when fluid intake is greater than output?27.What condition occurs when fluid intake is