PSY 1001: FINAL EXAM
359 Cards in this Set
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Margaret Washburn
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described animals and related them to the human mind
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Charles Darwin
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evolution by natural selection, all human behaviors come from early ancestors, monkeys had same behaviors
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Herman Helmholtz
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measured the speed of the nervous impulse, measured process in the mind & body, 1850 impulses in frog legs
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subtractive mthod
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used to examine and measure things that otherwise would be impossible to measure, comparing conditions ex. impulse is as fast as speed of light, actually 90 ft/sec
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Wilhelm Wundt
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promoted the belief that experimental methods should be used to study mental processes, used scientific method to study psychology, first psy textbook & lab
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Structuralism
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complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental parts/structures, how do these come together to create a complex experience, Wilhelm Wundt
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William James
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philosopher & professor, first psych lab in the US, interested in understanding consciousness in terms of adaptive values in why we do what we do, how do these help survival & reproduction
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functionalism
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focus on how behaviors function to allow people and animals to adapt to the environment, serve a practical/adaptive purpose, William James
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Sigmund Freud
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psychoanalytic theory, unconscious: part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness
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Behaviorism
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scientific study of observable behavior, focus is on learning
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Cognitive psychology
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argue against behaviourism, new emphasis of the process of the mind/thinking/language
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Cognitive and affective neuroscience
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study of how perception, thought, memory, reasoning, and emotion are processed, return to emphasis on mental processes
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Multiple disciplinary approaches and multiple levels of analysis
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cognitive: language/memory/attention
social: behavior in groups/relationships
emotion/affective: emotion regulation/ happiness
developmental: infancy, parental influences
clinical: depression, anxiety, schizophrenia
multicultural
industrial/organizational
to understand any phenome…
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Multiple sub-disciplines
Multiple levels of analysis
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disciplines: cognitive, developmental, clinical
analysis: neuroscience, behavioral
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Psychological myths
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persist despite new findings, portrayed in media ex. we only use 10% of our brains, we choose to be homosexual
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Four principles of psychology
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1. the mind is a product of a physical machine, the brain
2. We are consciously aware of only a small part of our mental activity, unconscious
3. We constantly modify our behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes according to what we perceive about people around us
4. experience physically al…
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Trolley car example
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Problem 1 (logical): trolley is coming, 5 people on one track, pull a lever, only kill one person
Problem 2 (emotional): trolley coming down the track, let it hit 5 people, throw one off a bridge to stop it
in first problem it's more logical but in the second one the emotional system i…
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Joshua Greene's Dual process theory of moral judgement
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2 distinct psychological/neural systems involved, utilitarian which is logical processing accessed in prefrontal cortex, emotional system with negative response in the anterior cingulate cortex
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Immanuel Kant
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moral decisions are based in logic and rationality
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David Hume
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fundamentally based in emotion and feeling
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Scientific approach to understanding/knowledge
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a way of trying to figure out the world, can't rely on dogma/authority/intuition/speculation, scientific method which outlines relationship between ideas and empirical evidence
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Biases in judgement and reasoning
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we are prone to a variety of well documented biases that interfere with making accurate inferences
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Implicit bias
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stereotyping ex. more men in orchestra than women
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illusory correlations
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luck charm ex. think of a friend and they call
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hindsight bias
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i knew it all along, explaining why we did something after it was done
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confirmation bias
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notice that which confirms, ignore that which disconfirms
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empiricism
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the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observations
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operational definition
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a definition that translates the variable we want to assess into a specific procedure or measurement
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covariance
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when two variable vary together in a predictable fashion
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correlation coefficient
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a qualitative, statistical measurement of how closely two variables fluctuate together, strength and direction
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Three reasons two variables are related
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1. A causes B
2. B causes A
3. C accounts for the relationship (confound)
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Correlation vs. Causation
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ex. parents who leave lights on in kids rooms are more likely to have near sighted babies
cause: parents who are near sighted turn lights on more, genetic
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experimental group
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the individuals for whom we manipulate the independent variable
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control group
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individuals who closely resemble the experimental group but do not receive the experimental treatment
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random assignment
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odds of being placed into different groups is the same
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descriptive study
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observe & record behavior
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correlational study
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to detect naturally occurring relationships
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experimental study
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explore cause and effect
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Ethical considerations
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informed consent, voluntary participation, no coercion, no deception, no disclosure of personal info, debriefed
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idea of animism
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the idea that animate beings might be explained by physical mechanisms was radical
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age of mechanics
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explain movement of objects with mathematical laws, cuckoo clocks, mechanical ducks
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Rene Descartes
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reflex is a mechanistic description of simple action, physical principles/mechanisms can explain animal and human behavior
decision explained by soul or spirit
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Cartesian dualism
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how does the physical interact with the non-physical, non physical in the pineal gland "seat of the soul"
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Minds & machines
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movies portraying machines as human like, end up being ruthless ex. silicone to replace brain... at what point do you become an android
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Neurons
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approx 100 billion, only 2% of body weight but use 20% of energy
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synapse
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where an axon of one neuron meets the dendrite of another, synaptic cleft is the gap between them
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dendrite
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one of the extensions of a neurons cell body that receiives information
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axon
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single extension from the nerve that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other surrounding cells
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cell body
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soma, the part of the cell surrounding the nucleus
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action potential
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nerve impulse, brief reversal of an axons potential, electrical message that travels along an axon
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all of none property
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every action potential is the same size regardless of the size of the stimulus
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myelin
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a fatty substance that provides electrical insulation which speeds action potentials, myelin sheath is the specialized glial cells wrap around some axons and forces the electrical current to quickly reach breaks in sheaths known as nodes of Ranvier
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neurotransmitter
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chemicals that transmit across the synapse to receiving neurons dendrites
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motor neuron
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type of neuron that sends commands to make muscles move, uses Ach as neurotransmitter
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sensory neurons
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a type of neuron that is sensitive to physical events and sends information to the brain
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interneurons
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neuron that receives input from and sends output to other neurons
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reflex
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simple behavior that automatically triggered by a particular stimulation without conscious effort, sensory neurons detect the stimulation and then release neurotransmitters into the interneurons
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glutamate
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a common neurotransmitter in the brain that usually causes neurons to be more active
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ach
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neurotransmitter used by many parts of the nervous system
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gaba
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neurotransmitter that usually reduces the activity of nuerons
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serotonin
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a neurotransmitter made by neurons at the base of the brain that sends their axons throughout the brain/spinal cord
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dopamine
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neurotransmitter involved in movement and in signaling pleauser
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endorphins
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neurotransmitter that seems to dampen down pain signals
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drug agonists
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increase action of neurotransmitters
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antagonists
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block function of neurotransmitters
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reuptake
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process by which axon terminals take back neurotransmitter molecules from the synaptic cleft
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neural networks
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a wide-ranging scattering of many, interneurons communication with one another to process information
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white matter
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parts of brain packed with myelinated axons
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gray matter
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regions packed with synapses, cell bodies
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cerebral cortex
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forebrain, outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres that consists largely of nerve cell bodies and their branches
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cerebellum
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controls balance and coordinates movements of the body, simple learning, sensory processing, foreprocessing
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frontal lobes
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section of the cerebrum in the front just above the eyes
prefrontal cortex: most complex behavior, decision making and impulse control
motor cortex: backmost strip, controls movement
broca's area: producing speech
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parietal lobes
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behind frontal lobes, touch, pain, body sense
somatosensory cortex: frontmost strip or parietal cortex, receives touch information
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occipital lobes
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vision receive information from eyes
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temporal lobes
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info about smell, taste, sound, understanding language
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corpus callosum
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main band of axons communicating between 2 cerebral hemispheres
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amygdala
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a group of nuclei, one in each temporal lobe, key in producing and recognizing FEAR
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hippocampus
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part of the limbic system that is crucial in the formation of permanent memories
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brain plasticity
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ability of the brain to change in structure and function
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Left and right brain hemispheres
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left controls right and visa versa, specialization is the tendency of one side of the brain to perform certain tasks ex. language is in the left , in split brain patients only left can talk about what it is thinking
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sympathetic nervous system
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pumps up physiological processes to prepare your body for action, pupils dilate, relax bronchi, heart rate increase, inhibits stomach, contracts vessels
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parasympathetic nervous system
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opposite effect, rest and recover
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phineas gage
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was working on the railroad and track shot through his eye socket, normal except for he was disorganized because it hit is frontal lobe
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brain lesion studies
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occur naturally, could be temporary TMS diable brain region, the limitations are that multiple regions are responsible for behaviors
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MRI
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technique that uses magnetic fields to generate images revealing structural details in the living brain
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fMRI
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detects changes in blood flow, identify regions that are active during a given task, stimulation-control = difference
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plasticity
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ability of the brain to change in structure or function
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sensation
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stimulation of a sense organ
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perception
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the organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation
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proximal stimulus
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what hits your eye
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distal stimulus
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what is out there
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transduction
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how our sensing organs convert physical signs from the environment into neural signals sent to the CNS
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the stimulation for perception
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visible light within the electromagnetic spectrum
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retina
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surface at the back of the eye where the image from the lens/cornea is focused
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cornea
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round/transparent front of the eye, bends light rays
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lens
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flexible, transparent structure, focus an image on the back of the eye
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fovea
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central part of vision, sharpest vision
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pupil
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determines how much light is let in
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blind spots
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part of visual fields missing because of optic discs
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optic disc
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round area on retina lacking rods and cones
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ganglion cells
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wiring that sends message to brain
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photoreceptors
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light-sensitive receptors in cells
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rods
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black and white, motion
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cones
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color, greatest amount in central vision
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absolute threshold
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minimum amount of energy needed to be detected, in trials it's detected 50% of the time
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just noticeable difference
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amount of increased intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of time
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Weber's law
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just noticeable differences between two stimuli are proportional to the magnitude of stimuli, changes are judged relative to overall weights
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sensory adaption
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sensitivity to a stimulus declines as the stimulus is presented over time, occurs in all senses
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contrast enhancement
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visual system heightens differences between contrasting regions
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lateral inhibition
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neurons send inhibitory signals to adjacent neurons that lessen activity and output, respond less when multiple neurons are activated
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synthesia
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the perceptual experience of one sense that is evoked by another sense
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binding problem
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features, colors, texture, contrast need to be combined
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brightness constancy
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see objects with same amount of brightness under varying light
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shape constancy
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see objects as constant regardless of changes in shape, size, pairs, show, or blocked with changes in perception
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color constancy
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color you see things at are related to colors around
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gestalt principles of perceptual organization
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the visual system tends to group things together in particular ways, see what are the objects
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continuity
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the tendency to perceive contours so that their direction changes as little as possible
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proximity
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objects that are close together tend to be grouped together
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similarity
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regions that are similar in color, lightness, shape, or texture are perceived as belonging to the same object
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common fate
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elements that move together are perceived as parts of a single moving objects
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figure/ ground
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visual system segregates foreground from background
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depth perception
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ability to perceive distances
binocular disparity: the closer the image the more displace the elements positions are across the retinas
monocular lens accomodation: adjusting lens to get clear image
interposition: closer object block farther ones
linear perspective: parallel lines con…
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3D movies
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two independent images go into each eye, two images a little off, each lens can only see one screen merge in head, disparity close objects "jump out"
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visual expectations
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want to simplify the world by assuming things
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learning
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the acquisition of new knowledge/skills/ responses from experiences that result in permanent change in the learner, occurs all the time, association
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Habituation
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repeated presentation of stimulus elicits less and less of a response, does not disappear, subject can still detect and respond
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Associative learning
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learning of the relationship between two stimuli and a behavior that repeatedly occur at about the same time
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Ivan Pavlove
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bell has rung everytime meat powder was placed in dogs mouth, salvation, neutral stimulus produces response after being paired with stimulus (classical conditioning)
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unconditioned stimulus
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something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
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unconditioned response
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a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
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conditioned stimulus
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a stimulus that is initially neural and produces no reliable response in an organism, after learning it can evoke a CR
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conditioned response
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a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a CS
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acquisition
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while you are learning the association, CS is paired with US
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extinction
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take away the US eventually CS goes away
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spontaneous recovery
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wait 24 hours, CS works again
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stimulus generalization
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when stimuli similar to those used during learning elicits the CR
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2nd order conditioning
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a learned CS follows another neutral stimulus so that the 2nd neutral stimulus also elicits the CR
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Little albert experiment
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environment more important than genes, scared of rat and all furry things
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biological preparedness
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a biological propensity for learning particular kinds of association over others, relates to what makes sense for animals in the environments they evolved in, John garcia rats and poison
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Operant conditioning
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the consequence of an organisms behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future
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thorndike's law of effect
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behaviors that are followed by satisfying state of affairs tend to be repeated and those that produce an unpleasant state of affairs are less likely to be repeated
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john watson and rise of behaviorism
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psychology should only study observable behavior, consciousness and mental constructs should not be invoked
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reinforcer
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any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior
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punisher
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any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
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positive reinforcement
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good grade for studying
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negative reinforcemeent
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remove stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior, car seat belt beeping
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positive punishment
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stimulus is present that decreases behavior, speeding ticket
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negative punishmentq
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stimulus is removed to decrease behavior, no dessert because pulled sisters hair
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Intermittent reinforcement
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hard to extinguish because it keeps appearing, gambling
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shaping
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the differential reinforcement of behaviors in successive approximations, reinforce little things then only bigger things
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learned helplessness
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a type of learning in which the subject learns an aversive stimulus cannot be avoided, helpless
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observational learning
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learning that occurs when one individual imitate the behavior of another
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karly lashy
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the problem with serial-ordered behavior", argued for necessity of positing hierarchical plans, speed of action too fast for chained associations, chunking, anticipation errors
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george miller
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the magic number 7 +- 2, showed capacity limits for short term memory, can only remember 7+- 2 things
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noam chomskys review of skinners behavior
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aspects of language learning that cannot be explained with behavioristic learning processes, rapid acquisition in children not enough data, parent don't reinforce grammar, language is creative
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encoding
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transfer of info from sensory systems to STM, elaborative when information is connected to existing info
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craik and tulvig
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60 word memory list, semantic questions were recognized most
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sensory storage
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iconic is fast decaying visual storage
echoic is fast decaying auditory storage
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STM/working memory
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a few second or more, 7+-2 items can be recalled, chunks, includes information/processes in addition to storage in working memory
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LTM
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several minutes or years
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role of rehearsal
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retained through rehearsal in STM, make use of STM to extend
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ebbingaus studied LTM and nonsense syllables
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not forgetting just failure to retrieve
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memory consolidation
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process of transferring info from STM to LTM
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Primacy effect in STM
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words in the beginning are remembered better than words in the middle, you repeat them most
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recency effect
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words seen last are remembered better than middle and first, haven't faded yet, doesnt work it wait to recall
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STM decreases with age
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cant remember digits and spatial patterns as well
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explicit memory
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with conscious recall, semantic is facts and general knowledge, episodic is personally experienced events
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implicit
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without conscious recall, procedural is motor and cognitive skills, priming is enhanced identification of objects
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LTM and forgetting
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failure to retrieve, huge capacity, memories that are similar interfere
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free recall
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person must retrieve with no hints or guides
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priming
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a cued recall, info presented at one time affects a persons response at a later time
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spreading activation
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words and objects that are related are connected in our memory, recalling one leads to the recall of another
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semantic networks
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most memories are connected to more than one additional memory
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context dependent retrieval
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improved ability to retrieve additional info when the conditions of the original learning are duplicated
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memory trace
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physical record of a memory made in the brain by a learning experience, dont deteriorate, may deviate each time it is used
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memory distortions
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it is constructive, reconstructive, think we remember things that didn't happen
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misinformation effect
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false memories created by providing false info from trusted sources, can influence the memory of an event
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hyperthymesia
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can remember everything
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cognitive psychology
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study of how we acquire and process information to gain knowledge, includes sensation and perception, processing included thinking/judging/imagining
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cognitive scientists
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include psychologists, philosophers, neuroscientists, computer scientists, linuists
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reaction time
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time it takes a person to initiate some action after a predetermined signal, increases with intensity, one of the most common variable measured by psychologist, indication of how much mental processing is required for a participant to respond
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mental imagery
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content of the mind that stands for something in the outside world, or ideals/concepts, ability to visualize images or events in our minds, we can manipulate the object in our minds eye ex. asked to walk around an island the longer you have to walk the longer it takes
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Stephen Kosslyn
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imagining moving around mental images, when people are imagining an image it lights up the same part of the brain as when you see a picture
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symbolic representations
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more flexible, express images in words
propositions: combining symbols into statements
distributive associative networks: model for how propositions represented in brain, nodes, spreading activaiton
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priming experiments
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when exposure to one stimulus affects the processing response to the next, effects are automatic and hard to stop, parallel neural mechanisms
ex. faster to recognize a word after a semantically related word spreading activation
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skill
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max of performance with a minimum effort
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cognitive phase in skill acquisition
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the beginner is consciously aware of what he is doing, checking himself, slow, making errors
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associative phase in skill acquisitionq
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faster, smoother, fewer errors, but the person still has to concentrate on the task
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autonomous phase in skill acquisition
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performance seems to be automatic without the person having to pay much attention, importance of chunking
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flow
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when we are wholly involved in some activity, just for its own sake, time seems to fly by and we seem to know what to do without thinking, being in the "groove", when highly skilled performer is tackling highly challenging tasks
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selective attention
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limited resources in a cluttered environment, need to focus on what's relevant and important
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attention spotlight
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ability to direct attention to one part of our visual field, even if not looking directly at it
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cocktail party effect
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when a person selectively attends to a particular conversation out of many, can block things out so much that you won't remember, still monitoring background information that can push through if relevant ex. your name
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inattention blindness
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when we appear to be blind to things we aren't attending to
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change blindness
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the failure of people to detect a change in a visual scene we have a hard time noticing change if our attention is broken
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decision making
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cognitive process of assessing information to select a course of action among several alternatives
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judgement
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cognitive process of forming an opinion or making an evaluation by comparing possible actions, short cuts lead to biases
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anchoring effect
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our judgements can be information that has no relevance, rely to heavily on this
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belief persistance
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tendency to hold on to a belief, even in the face of contradictory evidence
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framing effect
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the way information is presented makes a significant difference in what people will decide
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loss aversion
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we don't like to risk losing things, whether it is money or lives
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syllogism
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conclusion that must be trues if the premises are true, if a>b, b>c, then a>c
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Sir frances galton
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coined the term "nature vs nurture", convinced intelligence is heritable
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Alfred binet
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intended to identify children with mental disabilities to provide them with additional help, IQ= mental age/actual age x 100
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Wechsler Intelligence scale for children
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provides IQ score and 4 subscores, verbal comprehension & perceptual reasoning & working memory & processing speed
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Wechsler Adult intelligence scale
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similar test for adults as for children
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Stanford-Binet, WISC, WAIS
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individually administered, expensive, time demanding, must follow standardization
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frequency distribution
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a graph with range of scores on x axis and number of people who got each score on y axis
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reliability of IQ
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is the measure consistent, if taken multiple times would you get the same result
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validity of IQ
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does the measure really measure what you think it does, no way to prove IQ tests measure intelligence, scientists dont agree on definition of intelligence
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fluid intelligence
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ability to solve new, unusual problems, decreases with age
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crystallized intelligence
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acquired knowledge, expertise, increases with age
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emotional intelligence
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ability to understand and interpret your own and other's emotions
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Malnutrition and IQ
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children in areas with low iodine have lower scores
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IQ components
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general intelligence: non- specific aspect of mental ability hypothesized to be shared with any intellectual task
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Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
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verbal-linguistic, mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential, shows importance of other kinds of skills that may not be related to IQ assessments
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savant syndrome
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really good at something ex. kid who is blind has unbelievable musical skills
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flynn effect
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increases in average score on IQ tests have taken place since the first IQ tests were developed, 6 IQ points/decade
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Genetic/environmental contributions to IQ scores
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highest correlation between monozygotic twins reared together, half of variability due to genetics, performance on tests not intelligence
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Economic/environmental influences on IQ
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in US higher classes do better, heritability in impoverished families is zero
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culture influences on IQ
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content of what people know about what testing means, how questions interpreted
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social economic status
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affects IQ in many ways
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Stereotype threat
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person's performance influenced by his/her perception that performance confirms stereotype about group he/she identifies with
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Areas of development
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sensory-motor, cognitive, language, social, emotional, relationships
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Neurogenesis
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(1) dividing cells become neurons, cells are added rapidly, must form before birth
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cell migration
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(2) neurons move and begin to form clumps of cells that will become brain regions
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differentiation
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(3) neurons develop into different types
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synaptogenesis
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(4) making billions of connections or synapses between neurons
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neuronal cell death
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(5) many cells formed either die, perhaps because they have inappropriate connections
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synapse reaarrangement
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(6) some synapses are lost and others form, continues throughout life, during childhood more synapses are gained than lost
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Teratogens
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a substance that disrupts development and results in malformations
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
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consuming alcohol during pregnancy, have distinct facial features, reduced language, aggressive, motor skills, in extreme cases the corpus callosum doesn't form
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Sensitive periods
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times during development when events, such as light deprivation, can have a large effect
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Cognitive development and Jean Piaget
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swiss, first article at age 11, PhD in bio, how do we know what we know, how it develops in children, children's errors reveal more than correct answers
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piaget's theory ideas
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knowledge is constructive, not inborn, builds on itself, development is an active process that is comprised of assimilation and accomodation
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Sensorimotor period (piagets periods)
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birth-2 yrs, progression from reflexes to deliberate control of action, motor or action schemas developed and connected, understanding through own actions ex. Babinski reflex when toes curl, suck when cheek is touched
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A not B error
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hide object under A and baby retrieves, hide under A and then move to B while they watch, look under A because knowledge is built on action
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New methods to test what infants know
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not dependent on motor skills, habituation method, understanding is actually at 4 months and not as late a piaget thought
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preoperational period (piagets periods)
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2-6 yrs, develop representation, can think about absent/concrete objects, egocentric theory
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Piaget's 3 mountain task
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if a child is looking at mountains and you ask what someone on the other side sees, they say the same thing they see
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theory of mind
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the understanding that other people's minds are different from their own and may have different information
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false belief task
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sally puts the ball in a basket, sally leaves, anne moves ball to box, where will sally look? anne thinks she will look in the box because thats where she put it
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concrete operational period (piaget's periods)
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6-12 years, mental operation about objects allows for more sophisticated understanding of world, not as egocentric, can understand multiple perspectives
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formal operational period (piaget's periods)
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can think abstractly, can grapple concepts like justice/freedom/duty, adolescence egocentrism
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piaget's legacy
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defined field, children aren't just little adults, development is incremental, biological approach, changing way of thinking, children are actually more competent than he thought
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Konrad Lorenz
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founder of ethology, study of animal behavior, instinct and relation to evolution, imprinting when young follow parent in the critical period
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stranger anxiety
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a milestone in infant development when they have a negative response to unfamiliar people ex. Santa
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Harry Harlow
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researcher in 50s/60s, study with rhesus monkeys found that monkeys chose the cloth mother over wire mother with food proving the need for love
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Attachment (John Bolwby)
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a system for ensuring proximity of the primary caregiver to the infant for protection and security to explore the world, allows infant to survive in potentially threatening environment, secure base to explore, develops in first few months of life
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social reinforcing
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infant on visual cliff, crawls to edge and looks to mother, if mother has scared look the baby backs away and visa versa
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Strange situation (mary ainsworth)
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amount of exploration, child's reaction to departure of caregiver, stranger anxiety, reunion with caregiver
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secure attachment (strange situation)
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if caregiver leaves and returns, infants who were stressed are calmed by proximity, those who weren't acknowledge return
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avoidant attachment (strange situation)
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infants arent distressed when caregiver leaves, dont acknowledge the when they return
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ambivalent attachment (strange situation)
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infants are always stressed when caregiver leaves, when caregiver tries to comfort baby arches away
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disorganized attachment (strange situation)
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these infants show no consistent patterns or responses
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What determines attachment style?
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mothers behaviors towards infant, infants temperament, parenting style, cultural
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working models of relationships
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set of beliefs about the self, the primary caregiver, relationship between them
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robert sternberg
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three different components of intelligence, book smarts, street smarts, creative intelligence
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Adolescence
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a process of transition from childhood to adulthood, hormones drive secondary sex characteristics, menarch is females first menstraul cycle, myelination and synapses rearrangement still occurring, risky decisions, suicide, sexual orientation set at age 10
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Social psychology
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study of how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings affects our behavior, beliefs, and attitudes
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two processes of social psychology
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observe the behavior of other people, we decide consciously/unconsciously how we will behave around them
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social perception
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perceiving the behavior and inferring motives of other people, a person's physical appearance shapes our impressions
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attractiveness
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we judge physically attractive people to be healthier, more successful, more socially skilled
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facial averaging
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researchers use computers to average photos of men and women, morph into a face that is judged attractive by people, symmetrical faces are the result=good health, evolutionary psychologists say these traits developed from natural selection, prefer faces more like our own
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babies and attraciveness
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prefer average faces, prefer faces more than objects
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mere exposure effect
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people tend to like things better when you are more familiar with them
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situational attribution
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person behave certain way because of the situation/environment
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dispositional attribution
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person behaved a certain way because of internal attributions
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fundamental attribution error
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when trying to identify the cause of someone's current behavior, we attribute other people's behavior to their disposition rather than situation, occurs even when we are aware of it
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actor-observer bias
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tendency to explain away our own mistakes by attributing them to environment rather than disposition but others mistakes to disposition
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self-serving bias
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tendency to take credit for our successes by attributing them to traits, failures to the situation
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individualism
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tendency to put one's own goals and wishes ahead of those of a group, emphasizes a person's disposition and values individual freedom, US has highest individualism score
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collectivism
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tendency to put the goals of the group ahead of one's own goals, allowing less freedom to individuals, emphasizing the situation
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cognitive dissonance
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the unpleasant feeling people experience when two thoughts/cognition are inconsistent, thought is inconsistent with acction
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Reduce cognitive dissonance in two ways
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change the cognition, they come up with a justifying condition
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experiment of cognitive dissonance
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as students to put spool on and off a rack (boring), control person got nothing, second person was given $20 and asked to lie, third person was paid $1 and asked to lie, people paid $1 change cognition, people paid $20 justify cognition
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self-handicapping
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avoiding effort so potential failure won't damage self-esteem
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stereotyping
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people are judged to have particular traits just because they belong to a certain radical, cultural, gender or other group
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social prejudice
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an unfavorable stereotype of an entire group of people, an attitude about a large group of people "which tends to be highly stereotyped, emotionally charged, and not easily changed by contrary information"
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discrimination
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putting a person at a disadvantage or treating them unfairly solely because he or she is a member of a particular group
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implicit cognition
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stereotypes, social cognitions, attitudes, biases that are largely unconscious and automatic
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implicit association test
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examines reaction time to detect implicit association we might have with words or images, ex. people sort words good or bad, sort picture as african american or european american, sort both, slower rxn time when words go against stereotype
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solomon asch's classic line experiment
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participants asked "which line is equal to the standard line?" confederates answered first, gave wrong answer,1/3 people gave the wrong answer
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Conformity increases when...
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person is made to feel incompetent, group has at least three people but is not large, rest of crowd is unanimous, person admires status of group, person has not made prior commitment, group observes person, culture
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chameleon effect
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we unconsciously mimic others expressions/tones especially when we like them, people eager to fit in with a group unconsciously mimic members of the group
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social facilitation
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the tendency for weaknesses and strengths in performance to be magnified when people are watching, ex. performer is physioloogically aroused in front of audience, performer's most likely response is strengthened, better performance if performer is skilled or task is easy
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foot-in-the-door technique
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get people's attention or get them to provide a tiny favor in order to persuade them to make a bigger commitment ex. give little things so they donate to charity
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door-in-the-face technique
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first ask for some large request then change the request to something more reasonable ex. funeral directors show most expensive coffin first then go down
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social loafing
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less effort exerted by individuals in a group especially when individual contributions are hard to separate from the whole, people in a group feel less accountable, worry less about what people think, contributions are dispensable
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diffusion of responsibility
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tendency to be less likely to take action if others are available, can cause terrible harm
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bystander effect
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tendency to expect others to intervene in an emergency ex. kitty genovese murdered in front of crowd for 30 min and no one called the cops
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deindividualism
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psychological process of losing one's own individual identity and coming to identify with the crowd, in a crowd there is anonymity, larger crowd is more likely
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groupthink
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tendency of a group to make faulty decisions, group is so eager to make a unanimous decision that they suppress their critical thinking
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Milgram obedience studies
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to examine how far people will go to harm people in the name of authority, participants shocked a confederate each time they got a wrong answer, obedience increased when authority was closer & victim is depersonalized & no role models
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sigmund freud cases of hysteria
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conversion disorder, variety of physical symptoms without clear causes, psychological cause that results from painful memories that could not be expressed/repressed/converted into physical symptoms, worked to get patients to recall but it didnt work, patients unconsciously avoided talking…
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Id
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primitive drive to strive for immediate, biological wants, regardless of reality or cost
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superego
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internalized rules, guilt, punishment, regardless of reality
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ego
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tries to reconcile id and superego, reality principle
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Oral (freud stages of psychosexual development)
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0-2 yrs, focus on the mouth/lips/feeding/tongue, conflict: weaning from breast, if unresolved: overly passive/dependent/gullible
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anal (freud stages of psychosexual development)
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2-3 yrs, focus on anus/elimination, conflict:toilet training, if unresolved: anal explosive/retentive
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phallic (freud stages of psychosexual development)
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3-6 yrs, focus is on penis/clitoris, conflict: masturbation/parental separation, if unresolved: overly dependent on opposite-sex parent/hostile toward same-sex parent
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latent (freud stages of psychosexual development)
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6-12 yrs, no focus
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genital (freud stages of psychosexual development)
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12 + years, focus on the penis and vagina, conflict: mature/socially acceptable sexual relationship, if unresolved: unhappy sexual relationships
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defense mechanisms
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unconscious processes that protect the ego from realizing and acting on the ugly/socially unacceptable urges of the id
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rationalization
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making intellectual excuses for unacceptable behavior
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repression
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suppression of socially unacceptable desires
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projection
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thinking others have your unacceptable desires
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displacement
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redirecting desires from an unacceptable object to an acceptable one
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sublimation
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redirecting energy from an unacceptable behavior to an acceptable one
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rxn formation
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acting exactly the opposite of our desires
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regression
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reverting to immature behavior that would have been appropriate at a younger age
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denial
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refusing to see one's own weaknesses
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psychological disorders
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concepts of abnormal and how it relates to time/culture
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medical model of disorders
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mental illness as a disease that needs to be diagnosed on the basis of its symptoms and treated
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stigma around psychological disorders
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associated with labels, belief that "it's all in your head", lack of will/strength
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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published by the american psychiatric association, 1st published in 1952
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Reliability of DSM
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will clinicians come to the same diagnosis using guidelines
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validity of DSM
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does a psychological test or process identify a characteristic/disorder that really exists
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rosenhahn's labeling effect
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on being sane in an insane place, people admit themselves and said they hear voices but otherwise normal, forced into admitting they had a mental condition 19 days till released with schizophrenia, then agreed to send psuedo patients that the hospital had to identify, they identified 41 b…
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Criteria for diagnosis of mental disorders
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1. disturbance in behavior/thoughts/emotions
2. symptoms must be associated with significant personal distress or impairment
3. symptoms must result from an internal dysfunction, not environmental
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Diathesis-stress model
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a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered b stress
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intervention-causation fallacy
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incorrect assumption that if a treatment is to be effective it must address the cause of the problem
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personality disorders
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borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, because they are enduring there are few effective treatments
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antisocial personality disorder
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3.6% of population, occurrence in men is 3x that of women, survey of 22790 prison inmates found 47% of men and 27% women had it, grossly selfish/callous/impulsive/irresponsible, no regard/empathy for hurting others, charming/manipulative
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brain-based differences in APD
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affect processing, GSR study to signal shock they don't sweat, cant do lie test because they get nervous
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Ted Bundy
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serial killer of more than 30 women, middle part, tortured, you would never know
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phobic disorders
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irrational fear of specific object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual's ability to function, approx 11% of population has one at some point, 4x more common among women, 15% of women and 11% men have social phobia
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social phobia
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irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed
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systematic desensitization
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gradually exposing the person to the feared object or situation so that he can learn there is no real danger
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Cognitive behavioral therapy
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structured, goal-oriented counseling directed more at education about the disorder and skills for managing current symptoms than extensive probing into early experience
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generalized anxiety disorders
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chronic excessive worry accompanied by 3 or more of the following: restlessness/fatigue/concentration problems/irritability/muscle tension/sleep disturbance, 5% of N america at some time in life, more frequent among low income people/people in large cities/minorities, incidence among wome…
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OCD
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repetitive: intrusive thoughts and ritualistic behaviors that interfere significantly with an individual's functioning
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obssession
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recurring thoughts that interfere with life
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compulsion
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recurring behavior ex. excessive cleaning/checking/repeating/ordering/arranging/counting
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treatment
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responds well to CBT, drugs, antidepressants, depression accompanies OCD
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functional brain imaging
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suggests that the same drugs alter activity of the prefrontal cortex in people with OCD and in people with depression
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dissociative disorders
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normal cognitive processes severely disjointed or fragmented, creating significant disruption of memory/awareness/personally
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amnesia
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sudden loss of episodic memory, personal information
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dissociative identity disorder
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multiple personality disorder, patient has 2 or more distinct identities that alternatively control his thoughts/behaviors, result of long term abuse/trauma in childhood, escape pattern of abuse
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Major depression
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unipolar, severly depressed mood that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lack of pleasure, lethargy, and sleep/appetite disturbances, most common reason for seeking therapy, 16% of population suffer clinical depression, rate among women 2x men, episodes…
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Treatment for depression
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SSRIs (prozac, zoloft, paxil), block reuptake of serotonin, exercise increases serotonin, ECT, placebo shocks, twin studies indicate a genetic component
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brain structure of depression
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thinner cortex, reduced hippocampal volume, reduced activation of hippocampus during memory tasks
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bipolar
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manic-depressive, severe depression swinging with mania, mania is opposite of depression you are lively talkative and cant stay on topic with irritation at any frustration high confidence high risk, treatment is CBT and you can't use antidepressants because they trigger manic phase use mo…
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schizophrenia
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profound disruption of all basic psychological processes/perception/thoughts/emotions/behaviors, name comes from "split mind", different aspects of mind appear to separate and become unrelated
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Schizophrenia cases in novels
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show what it feels like to go crazy, both cases the author drifted into schizophrenia later described the feelings, Hannah Green "I never promised you a rose garden", mark vonnegut "the eden express"
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Delusions (schizophrenia)
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false belief systems maintained in spite of irrationality, grandiose
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hallucinations (schizophrenia)
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perceptions of stimuli that are not present, voices are most common, visions less common
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disorganized speech (schizophrenia)
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rapid incoherent shifts from one unrelated topic to another
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disorganized behavior (schizophrenia)
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motor disturbances, behavior inappropriate to the situation of ineffective in obtaining goals
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negative symptoms (schizophrenia)
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emotional withdrawal, apathy, poverty of speech, absence of normal behavior, motivation, emotion
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paranoid schizophrenia
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absurd, illogical, changeable delusions, less disorganization of behavior/withdrawal from social interactions than other forms
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catatonic schizophrenia
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extreme withdrawal, can remain motionless for hours, can alternate with extreme excitement
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disorganized schizophrenia
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more severe disruption of cognition and emotion than other forms, shows up at earlier age, emotional blunting and distortion/silliness/peculiar mannerisms/bizarre/obscene behavior
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undifferentiated schizophrenia
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rapidly changing mixture of symptoms sometimes seen as schizophrenia developing/transitioning
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residual schizophrenia
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mild symptoms show by patients in remmission
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Causes of schizophrenia
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clear biological component with high sensitivity to dopamine & 6 fold increase in dopamine receptors, antipsychotic drugs block dopamine, shrinkage of brain tissue, 48% if you have identical twin, role of viral infection may be linked to abnormal brain development due to flu, environmenta…
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Therapy for Schizophrenia
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psychotherapy not much use, antipsychotic medications have revolutionized treatment, medications reduced number of people in psychiatric hospitals by 2/3, typical block dopamine receptors & reduce positive symptoms, "atypical" block dopamine & serotonin & help with positive and negative e…
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anxiolytics
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drugs that relieve anxiety
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benzodiazepines
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valum/xanax, affect mood by boosting effects of GABA receptors with normally inhibit neuronal activity throughout the cortex, drugs are potentially addictive
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PSY 1001: Intelligence, thought, and language