BIOL 1108: FINAL EXAM
691 Cards in this Set
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genotype / phenotype ratio using monohybrid cross
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PT- 3:1 & GT- 1:2:1
Pp x Pp
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Genotype ratio for dihybrid cross?
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9:3:3:1
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What two factors interact to determine phenotype?
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1. Genotype
2. Environment
Common knowledge tells us that environmental variables such as light, temperature, and nutrition can affect the phenotypic expression of a genotype.
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In DNA replication what enzyme unwinds the DNA?
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Helicase
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Leading strand vs. lagging strand
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Leading strand: nucleotides continuously added 5'→3' in direction of replication fork.
Lagging strand: synthesized discontinuously in Okazaki fragments because replication fork proceeds 3'→5-' in this section.
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What is an Okazaki fragment?
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segments of DNA produced when replicating the 5'-3' strand
-they are later attached together by DNA ligase when the primer sections are removed
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Functions of DNA Polymerase
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-Extends DNA (catalyzes in 5'-3' direction)
-Has 3'-5' exonuclease activity (recognizes errors cleaves off in 3'-5')
-Removes the RNA primer
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How do you introduce a gene into a plant?
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1. Plasmids and plant DNA are cut using the same enzyme.
2. LIGASE ties them together
3. Cloned bacteria was applied to kill all bacterial clones w.o plasmids
4. A LAC gene was inserted to turn colonies blue.
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What is an alternative form of genetic material?
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ALLELE
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Define: Locus
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The specific location of a chromosome
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What is one trait that is affected by many genes?
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polygeny
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What is one gene that affects many traits?
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Pleiotropy
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T/F - Bacteria has introns
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FALSE
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mRNA -> protein
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TRANSLATION
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DNA -> mRNA
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TRANSCRIPTION
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What is the natural function & applied use of: Ligase
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N.F: Tie pieces of the lagging strand
A.U: Cut's plasmids and cut DNA
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What is the natural function & applied use of: Reverse Transcriptase
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N.F: RNA virus to make DNA copy
A.U: post-processed RNA to make a gene that'll work in bacteria
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What is the natural function & applied use of: PLASMIDS
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N.F: small loop of DNA
A.U: used to introduce genes to cell
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What is the natural function & applied use of: Restriction Enzymes
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N.F: cut genetic material out of invaders
A.U: cut DNA at specific sequence
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What is an RNA primer sequence made as a complement to?
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DNA at the site of origin of replication
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What RNA nucleotide replaces a DNA nucleotide?
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Uracil replace Thymine
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Define: TRANSDUCTION (genetics)
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is the process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus.Definition
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Small interfering RNA
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inhibits translation
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LAC is transcribed when
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glucose is ABSENT and lactose is PRESENT
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CAP protein binds to promoter of LAC when
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lactose is absent
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LAC repressor binds to
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the operator
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LAC repressor binds only when
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Lactose is absent
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Lysogenic cycle
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growth phase:
- integrates into the chromosomes
- lies dormant while cell reproduces
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Lyctic cycle
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Growth cycle:
- viral DNA is injected
- new viral DNA and proteins are produced
- cell lyses and releases viruses
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How is it possible to make two different proteins by transcription of the same gene?
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Alternative splicing is a regulated process during gene expression that results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins. In this process, particular exons of a gene may be included within or excluded from the final, processed messenger RNA (mRNA) produced from that gene.
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Is a UTR sequence transcribed and/or translated?
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They are only transcribed
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Primate Traits
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1. Long Arms 2. Opposable Thumbs 3. Upright Posture 4. Larger brain 5. Vision
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Primate Traits - Vision
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1. Trichromatic Vision - see in color 2. Depth Perception 3. Binocular Vision 4. Eyes are forward facing
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Taxonomic Classifications
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D omain - K ingdom - P hylum - C lass - O rder - F amily - G enus - S pecies
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Human Taxonomic Classification
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Kingdom - Animalia Phylum - Chordata Class - Mammalia Order - Primates Family - Hominidae Genus - Homo Species - Homo Sapiens
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Early Primate Characteristics
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small arboreal nocturnal ate insects
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Prosimians - Types
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Tarsiers & Lemurs
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Where are Lemurs found?
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Madagascar & adjacent islands
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Anthropods
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* Split from Prosimians 40 million years ago * Morphologically resembles humans
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When did Anthropoid Split into New World & Old World Primates?
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* split from Anthropoid 30 million years ago
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New World Primates
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* Located in South America * Prehensile Tails * Arboreal * Flat Noses
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Old World Primates
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* Found in Africa/Asia * Both arboreal and ground-dwelling * No prehensile tail * Downward facing nose
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Descendants of Old World Primates?
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* Gibbons * Apes * Great Apes
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What are the Great Apes?
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* Orangutan * Gorillas * Chimpanzee * Bonobo
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Hominoids
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1. Of or belonging to the superfamily Hominoidea, which includes apes and humans. 2. Resembling a human. Australopithecus & Homo
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Why were Hominoids bipedal?
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* higher leg bone density * bowl-shaped pelvis * flat foot - strong heel strike & aligned toes * S-shaped vertebral column * Forenam Magnum placement : the closer centered the more likely for a straight spine
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P. Boisi & P. Robustus
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* Blunt Teeth * Large Jaws adapted for plant eating * Midsaggital Crest
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Australopithecus - Brain Size
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1/3 Size of Modern Human Brain
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Homo Habilis
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"The Handy Man" - first to use tools - scavengers - 1/2 size of modern human brain
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Homo Erectus
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- hunters - first to leave Africa - 2/3 size of modern human brain
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Homo neanderthalensis
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- evolved from H. heidelbergensis - brain with 10% larger volume than modern humans-brain grew outwards and back not up like humans - shorter limbs than H. sapiens
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Homo sapiens
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- human - artwork
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Ancestry Mapping
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* mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) - mother to child - no sexual recombination * y chromosome DNA - father to son - the male mtDNA dies when sperm meets egg
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Brain Growth - Humans to Monkeys
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* Human brain growth - rapid childhood growth * Monkey brain growth - slower childhood growth
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Ecology
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The study of interactions between living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem.
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Population Ecology
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The analysis of factors that affect population size and how and why it changes over time.
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Community
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Populations of different species in a region
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Community Ecology
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The examination of how interactions between species, such as predation and competition, affect community structure and organization
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Ecosystem
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The community of organisms in an area and the physical factors which those organisms interact.
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Factors of Environment
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1. biotic; living - predation, competition, parasites 2. abiotic; non-living - temperature, resources
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Global air circulation
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* Water evaporates in the tropics, and warm, wet air masses flow from the tropics toward the poles * Rising air masses release water and cause high precipitation, especially in the tropics * Dry, descending air masses create arid climates, especially near 30° north and south * Cooling tra…
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Wet Climate Belts
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* 30° N & 30° S of equator High tropic temperatures evaporate water from surface. Rising air masses release much of their water content. * 60° N & 60° S of equator (poles) Air from dry belts rise and release precipitation (less than tropics)
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Dry Climate Belts
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* 30° to 60° N & S of equator Dry high altitude masses ascend towards poles. When near earth surface they absorb moisture - creating arid climates
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Formation of rain
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1. Air is heated and rises - When solar heat hits the earth, it warms the air at that point. The heated air rises 2. Rising air cools - As hot air rises, getting farther from the warm earth, it cools - can’t hold moisture (clouds form) 3. Cooling air loses moisture - Because cold air hold…
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Moderating Effects of Water on Air Temperature
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1. Warm air over land rises 2. Air cools at high elevation 3. Cooler air sinks over water 4. Cool air over water moves inland - replacing the rising warm air
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Prevailing winds
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* Above equator = east to west , clockwise * Below equator = west to east
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The Effects of the Gulf Stream
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* Stream of air & water from the Caribbean to Western Europe * Warm air and water rises to UK & Western Europe
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Why is London warmer & rainy?
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The Gulf Stream - sends warm water and air from the tropics over to the UK.
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Water Temperature -Time Lag
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Summer - the ocean will be cooler Fall - the ocean will be warmer
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Temperature Extremes - States: Inland, West Coast, East Coast
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* Least Extreme - West Coast State * Less Extreme - East Coast States * Most Extreme - Inland States
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El Nino
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irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region and beyond every few year
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El nino year
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1. The sea surface is warm in the central & eastern Pacific 2. Warm air rises in central Pacific, travels E and W then descends - warm water piles up along coast of North America * This prevents cool water from rising. nutrient poor water. low fish.
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Typical Year (non-el nino)
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* strong westward winds; pushing warm water out of the over, and brings the cold water upwards. the cold water has nutrients and fish LOVE that shit.
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Carbon Cycle
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The system through which carbon circulates through the atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere, specifically including exchanges between carbon in the earth and the atmosphere through combustion and back through sequestration
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Carbon Cycle effect on Climate Change?
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The stored carbon (fossil fuels) are being used at an increasing pace. The leftover CO2 and gases are not being cycled - getting trapped in our atmosphere.
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Mark Recapture Formula
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N=(MC)/R N= Unknown population size M=# caught and marked in the first sample C=# caught in second sample R=# marked in second sample
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Limits to Population Size
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density independent - doesn't rely on population density dependent factors - changes with population density
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Density-independent factors
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population growth that is not influenced by population density, typically abiotic. examples - extreme weather and extreme events
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Density Dependent Factors (factors)
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Resources, Predation, Disease, Territoriality
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Stress Response
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Adaptive response to a challenge in the environment
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Short Tern & Long Term Effects of Stress
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ST 1. alert 2. increased heart & bp 3. increased glucose 4. decreased sex drive and eating 5. decreased immunity LT 1. agitation 2. heart disease 3. diabetes 4. depression 5. disease
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Burying Beetle - life cycle
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egg -> larva -> pupa -> adult.
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Niche
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An organisms specific use of biotic and abiotic resources
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Fundamental Niche
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the conditions in which an organism can survive
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Realized Niche
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the conditions in which an organism actually uses.
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Competitive Exclusion Principle
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States that two species with similar niches cannot coexist in the same place. (ex: balanus and chthamalus barnacles compete for space in a rocky intertidal)
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Results of Barnacle Experiment
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CTHALAMUS CAN physically settle into lower zone * BALANUS is a better competitor than CTH BALANUS CAN'T settle into upper zone * CTH is more suited and can survive harsher environments
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Predation
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A relationship in which members of one species (the predator) consume members of other species (the prey). * allows for adaptations of defense mechanisms
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Keystone Species/Keystone Predator
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* Species- a species that exerts an amount of control disproportionate to its size. * Predator- a predator which selectively removes competitively dominant prey * EX: Starfish in intertidal zones (mussels are superior prey - crowding out other species) are effective mussel predators
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Australian Rabbits & Myxoma Virus
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* Rabbit overpopulation lead to the introduction of rabbit virus. 1. 99% died 2. 90% died 3. 50% died * The rabbits became immune, and the virus became less virulent
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Virulence
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degree of pathogenicity, depends on the host-microbe interaction
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Most Virulent to Least Virulent
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* Close Contact = less virulent * Spread by Insect = Most virulent * Spread by untreated water = virulent (if treated it is less virulent)
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Zoonotic Diseases
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transmitted from non-human animals to humans * Salmonellosis * Anthrax ( Bacillus anthracis ) cattle, sheep, other mammals – usually comes from spore-contaminated soil * Plague ( Yersinia pestis ) * Influenza – water fowl, chickens, turkeys, swine * HIV
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Early ancestor of plants?
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Green Algea
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Challenges of early plants
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1. Conserving water [S: waxy cuticle, moist environment] 2. Obtaining nutrients from their surroundings [S: root hairs, fungi, xylem, phloem] 3. Reproducing on land [S: pollen, seeds]
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4 Major Plant Groups
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1. Mosses 2. Ferns 3. Gymnosperms 4. Angiosperms (flowering)
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Moss Traits [Bryophyta]
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1. do NOT produce seeds 2. lack vascular tissue 3. dominant gametophyte (n) [11,000 species]
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Fern Traits [Pterophyta]
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1. seedless 2. has vascular tissues 3. sporophyte dominant [12,000 species]
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Gymnosperm Trait [Naked Seed]
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1. has seeds & pollen 2. vascular tissues 3. can be very successful in dry environment [600-700 species]
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Angiosperm Traits [Flowering]
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1. seeds, flowers, fruits, and pollen 2. dominant sporophyte 3. vascular tissue [MOST SUCCESSFUL GROUP]
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General Plant Life Cycle
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1. Sporophyte- Diploid (n) 2. Meiosis produces spores (haploid n) 3. Gametophytes (multicellular and haploid n) are formed of divided spores 4. Gametes are formed by mitosis (n) 5. When fertilized a diploid (2n) zygote is formed
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Archegonium
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female gamete "egg"
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Antheridium
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male gamete "sperm"
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Fungi Traits
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* Eukaryotes * Most are multicelluer (some are single celled - yeast) * Heterotrophs - feed on other organisms
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fungi structure
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* hyphea * threadlike projections * cell like compartments Mycelium * woven mesh of hyphea
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What form of digestion does fungi have?
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External Digestion - excrete to the outside digestive enzymes, break down other cells, and absorb the broken down material. Definition
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Dikaryotic Cell
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a cell that contains two seperate haploid nuclei (n+n)
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microgametophytes
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male gametophytes, pollen grains, develop in MICROsporangia
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Mycorrhizae
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are symbiotic relationships that form between fungi and plants. The fungi colonize the root system of a host plant, providing increased water and nutrient absorption capabilities while the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis.
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Lichen
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symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism - fungus provides a structure for protection - provides water - lichen provides sugars
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fungus-growing ants (leaf cutters)
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- cut out pieces of leaves, and take back and underground - little farmers
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BASIDIOMYCETES (MUSHROOMS)
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Haploid hyphie (+ & - types) — primary mycelium Form a dikaryotic cell that grows into a dikaryotic hypha — secondary mycelium Mushroom — reproductive structure (basidiocarp) Entire mushroom is dikaryotic Mushroom edge (gills) — 2 nuclei fuse to form a diploid Goes through this stage in o…
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ZYGOMYCITIS (BRIEF STAGE)
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Can reproduce asexual — singular sporangium (clones) No meiosis — haploid to haploid Under stress — sexual reproduction 2 Nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote Mitosis to produce a multicellular zygospore Sexual sporangium - meiosis produce spores (1n)
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*Ascomycetes
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* Commonly called "sac fungi", reproduce asexually through spore formation or sexual through ascospore formation.
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What is cell division?
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the division of preexisting cells
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What is meiosis?
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the type of cell division that results in the production of sperm and egg
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What is meiosis?
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is the nuclear division that results in the halving of chromosome number- it precedes the formation of egg and sperm
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Mitosis is responsible for what type of cells?
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somatic- body cells
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What is cytokinesis?
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the division of the cytoplasm into two distinct cells
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Daughter cells that result from mitosis are _____ to one and other, while daughter cells from meiosis are _____.
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identical genetically different from each other and have half the amount of hereditary material as the parent cell
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Mitosis and Cytokinesis are responsible for three key events in multicellular eukaryotes. What are they?
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1. Growth 2. Wound Repair 3. Reproduction
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What is asexual reproduction?
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the production of offspring genetically identical to the parent
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What is a chromosome?
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a single strand of DNA that has wrapped around proteins in a highly compact way
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Chromosome
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Vehicle for carrying genes.
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What is a chromatid?
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replicate copies of a chromosome from a single parent
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What is the centromere?
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specialized region where chromatids are attached
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What are sister chromatids? and how many chromosomes are there?
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chromatids from the same chromosome, even though there are two chromatids there is only one chromosomes
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What is the M phase?
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the mitotic phase, the dividing phase of the cell cycle
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What is mitosis?
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-results in two identical daughter cells -direct duplication of genetic material -no change in chromosome number
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Mitosis
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one cell will start to specialize One cell staysmeristem (unspecialized or undifferentiated)
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Where does mitotic division occur in animals?
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the somatic cells
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How are mitosis and cytokinesis different?
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mitosis is the division of the nucleus, cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm
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How much time does a cell spend in mitosis?
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10%
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Name the three stages of interphase?
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* G1 * S * G2
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What happens during the G1 Phase?
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chromosomes unfold, organelles (mitochondria, etc) multiply, membranes are synthesized
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What are the characteristics of the S phase?
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-the synthesis phase -replication of genetic material is separated (chromatin is replicated)
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What are the characteristics of the G2 phase?
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preparation for cell divison
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What are the 5 phases of mitosis?
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1. prophase 2. prometaphase 3. metaphase 4. anaphase 5. telophase
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What 2 things happen during prophase?
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chromosomes condense and spindle apparatus begins to form
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What 2 things happen during prometaphase?
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nuclear envelope breaks down, kinetochore microtubles contact chromosomes at kinetochore
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What happens during metaphase?
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Chromosomes complete migration to the middle of the cell.
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What happens during metaphase?
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migration of tetrads to metaphase plate is complete
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What 2 things happen during anaphase?
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Sister chromatids separate. Chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
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What happens during telophase?
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the nuclear envelope re-forms and the spindle apparatus disintegrates
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How does cytokinesis in animal cells and plant cells differ?
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-Plants go through phragmoplast- the cell plate in plant cell division -animals go through cleavage furrow - the pinching off the cells
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After cytokinesis how many daughter cells are there?
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two
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What is ploidy?
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the number of complete sets of unique chromosomes
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What are somatic cells?
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any cell that isn't part of the reproductive process
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What are gametes?
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sex cells
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What is diploid?
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cells that have two copies of each chromosome
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haploid cells
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have one set of chromosomes
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how many chromosome pairs do humans have?
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23
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How many chromosomes do humans typically have?
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46
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What does the term homologous chromosomes mean?
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chromosomes that have the same morphology (size and banding patterns) and the same genes, but the genes have different alleles
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Where do homologous chromosomes come from?
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one from each parent
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Are homologous chromosomes identical?
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no
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How many pairs of autosomes do humans have and what are they?
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there are 22 pairs, these are chromosomal pairs that do not determine the sex of the organism
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how many pairs of sex chromosomes do humans have?
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1
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What sex chromosome pairing results in a female? In a male?
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-female - xx -male - xy
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Where does meiosis occur in humans?
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in the gonads -males - testes -females - ovaries
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Name two cell types in humans that are produced through meiosis.
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haploid spermatids haploid ootid
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What is the difference between meiosis I and meiosis II?
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In Meiosis 1- homologous chromosomes separate and recombination, independent assortment, reduction division, and crossing over occur. In Meiosis 2- sister chromatids separate just as in mitosis
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After a single parent cell undergoes meiosis how many daughter cells result?
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4
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How many stages are there in Meiosis?
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10
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What happens during early prophase 1?
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1. chromosomes condense 2. nuclear envelope breaks 3. spindle apparatus forms 4. synapsis of homologous chromosomes
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What happens during late prophase 1?
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crossing over of nonsister chromatids
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What happens during anaphase I?
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Homologs separate and begin moving to opposite sides of the cell.
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What happens during telophase I and cytokinesis?
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chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell and then the cell divides
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What happens during prophase II?
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spindle apparatus forms
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What happens during metaphase II?
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Chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell (metaphase plate)
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What happens during Anaphase II?
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Sister chromatids separate, begin moving to opposite sides of the cell
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What happens during telophase II and cytokinesis?
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chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell and then the cell divides
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What is a tetrad?
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a structure consisting of two homologous chromosomes, with each homolog consisting of two sister chromatids
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What is independent assortment?
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Mendel's principle - stating that each pair of hereditary elements (alleles of the same gene) behaves independently of other genes during meiosis
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What is crossing over?
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concept developed by Morgan - paternal and maternal chromatids break and rejoin at each chiasma, producing chromatids that have both paternal and maternal segments
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Why is crossing over important?
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it results in a mixture of maternal and paternal alleles
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Why is independent assortment important?
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it creates genetic variability
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After 3 generation would a sexual organism or asexual organism have more offspring?
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asexual - because they do not need to pair prior to division they can just divide - resulting in twice as many offspring
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Why is sex advantageous?
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The purifying selection hypothesis - offspring that lack deleterious alleles present in the parent The changing-environment hypothesis - genetically independent offspring are less likely to be susceptible to a new strain of disease
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3 basic differences between meiosis and mitosis
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-daughter cells- mitosis 2 - meiosis 4 - genetic material - mitosis - identical - meiosis - varied - chromosome number - mitosis - no change - meiosis - reduction in chromosome number
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What is a genotype?
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the genetic make-up of an organism
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What is a phenotype?
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the physical and physiological traits of an organism that are determined by its genes
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What is a gene?
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stretches of DNA that code for proteins
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Gene
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Unit of genetic info.
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What are alleles?
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different versions of a gene that produce different phenotypes
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How a traits physically passed on from one generation to the next?
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they are passed down through chromosomes, that contain the genes that provide the given information
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How are Mendel's observations on inheritance explained in terms of chromosomes and meiosis?
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Mendel's observations that traits are not blended is due to the fact that the homologous chromosomes never combine, parts may cross over, but they are never blended. Instead they maintain their original identities, so during meiosis some cells with receive one set of alleles, while anothe…
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What is a punnett square?
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a technique for predicting the genotypes and phenotypes of different crosses
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Can you predict different genotypes and phenotypes in offspring given the parents' genotype?
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yes
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How does a dihybrid cross work under assumptions of independent and dependent assortment of genes?
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- the alleles that code for different phenotypes in the parent will separate independently - independent assortment - the alleles for different phenotypes in the parent will stay together and be transmitted to the gametes together - dependent assortment
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What is a recessive allele?
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an allele that seems to become temporarily hidden
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What is a dominant allele?
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the allele that is expressed in a heterozygous condition
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What is a carrier?
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heterozygotes that do not exhibit the condition, but can pass it on
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Do you get carriers for conditions that are inherited by recessive or dominant alleles?
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recessive
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Gene expression involving incomplete dominance.
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neither allele is dominant resulting in a heterozygote phenotype that is a mixture
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Gene expression involving codominance
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heterozygotes display both traits seen in homozygous individuals
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Gene expression in terms of pleiotropy
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when a single gene affects many characters Ex- Marfan syndrome - elongated body and fingers flat feet heart problems nearswightness
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Gene expression when many alleles affect the phenotype
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when multiples alleles affect the trait the trait is polymorphic this results in many more than two phenotypes
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How is sex determined in humans
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by the male and the combination of XY and XX alleles
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4 criterion of scientific theory
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-is built using inductive logic -is "unprovable but falsifiable" -describes a lot with just a little (a model of few parts) -makes predictions about future observations
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bench mark theories of science
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string theory theory of relativity theory of plate tectonics
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What is George Cuvier famous for?
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proposed the idea of extinction
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extinct vs extant
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extinct - no longer living extant - still living
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What famous scientist did Cuvier disagree with?
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Lamarck - believed that adaptive traits from parents are passed down to children (ex. muscle mass) and that species were constantly changing resulting in certain extinction. While Cuvier believed it was catastrophic catastrophes that were the only cause of extinction.
|
|
Thomas Malthus
|
showed that populations changed and died off - disproved the theory that society is perfect and always improving rather than declining
|
|
What was the significance of Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle?
|
his observations during that trip lead him to develop his theory of evolution
|
|
What two ideas did Darwin propose pertaining evolution?
|
1. species change through time 2. species were not created individually
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Natural Selection
|
causes adaptation to local conditions
|
|
common ancestry
|
when species are related by having a common ancestor
|
|
3 major contributions to science by Alfred Russell Wallace
|
-warning coloration -barriers to hybridization encourage speciation -six major ecological regions we use today (Wallace's line)
|
|
What did Darwin, Lamarck, and Wallace agree on?
|
-descent with modification -adaptation by natural selection -variation between individuals within the same population *** the individual that is acted on by natural selection, it is in the population that we see evolution
|
|
biogeography
|
evidence of history in the geographic distribution of organisms
|
|
What is biogeography?
|
The study of the current and historical distribution and movement of life
|
|
3 lines of evidence which support evolutionary change over time
|
-fossil records vs. modern organisms -transitional forms -vestigial triats
|
|
Homology
|
* similarity due to shared phylogenetic ancestry
|
|
vestigial trait
|
a structure that is reduced or incompletely developed and has no or reduced function Ex. appendix
|
|
What is a tetrapod?
|
limbs that have the same layout regardless of what they are used for
|
|
What are the four steps of natural selection?
|
-individuals in a population vary in their traits -some of these differences are heritable -more offspring are produced then can survive, only some living long enough to reproduce -individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
|
|
fitness
|
the ability to survive and produce offspring
|
|
adaptation
|
a heritable trait that increases an individual's fitness in a particular environment
|
|
evolution
|
a change in allele frequency in a population
|
|
mutation
|
a change in DNA base pairing
|
|
What role do mutations play in evolution?
|
it is essential - changes in allele composition results in genetic variation
|
|
transitional forms
|
fossils that have been found with traits that are intermediate between earlier and later species - provide strong evidence for change through time
|
|
How can a once disadvantageous allele become advantageous?
|
disadvantageous alleles can become advantageous, if a change in the environment becomes more conducive to the trait that allele is carrying
|
|
In what ways are Darwin's finches excellent models for demonstrating evolution and the theory of natural selection?
|
In 1977, there was a severe drought causing most plants to stop reproducing. The only seeds available were very tough leaving them uneaten in normal years. This caused 84% of medium ground finches to die. The survivors had larger, deeper beaks on average. Individual birds did not change.
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|
What is a population?
|
-individuals of the same species -occupying an area -subject to the same environment -interbreeding
|
|
population
|
localized group of 1 species that share a gene pool
|
|
How is population genetic structure defined?
|
gene pool and genotype frequencies
|
|
What does it mean when a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
|
a gene pool that is not evolving
|
|
microevolution
|
change in population genetic structure between generations
|
|
Micro Evolution
|
Describes changes in allele frequencies
|
|
Microevolution
|
Change in allele frequency w/in pop.
|
|
Macroevolution
|
Changes in gene pools sufficient to create a new species.
|
|
What does a gene pool consist of?
|
all the members alleles of a population at the various loci
|
|
What are genotype frequencies?
|
describes the occurrence of different allele combinations in the population
|
|
What is meant by allele frequencies?
|
the occurrence of different alleles in the population
|
|
How to calculate gene frequency:
|
(2(p)+heterozygote)/(2*population)
|
|
allele frequency
|
#specific allele/ population p+q=1
|
|
p+q=1
|
allele frequency
|
|
What is meant when the population is at equilibrium?
|
static population -large population -sexually reproducing -random mating -no immigration/emmigration -no mutation -no selection
|
|
Static
|
no microevolution -allele and genotype frequencies do not change over time
|
|
What is assumed when we talk about a population in H-W equilibrium?
|
* Allele frequencies did not change because of loss or gain due to emigration, immigration, mutation * Alleles combined in proportion to their frequency, because reproduction is sexual and mating is random * Parental genotypes contribute proportionally to the next generation because each …
|
|
Is a population in H-W equilibrium realistic?
|
nope
|
|
Genetic Drift
|
The random change in the allele frequency in a population's gene pool.
|
|
What size population is most affected by genetic drift?
|
small
|
|
What does drift lead to?
|
- random gain or loss of alleles depending which direction the drift is occuring in
|
|
Why is genetic drift important ( and a concern ) to conservation biologists?
|
too much of a loss in alleles can be traumatic to a population
|
|
The founder effect
|
occurs when a group starts a new population in a new area - common in isolated habitats
|
|
founder effect
|
few individual pass on rare genes which alter population in a isolated region. Usually caused by inbreeding
|
|
bottleneck
|
sudden decrease in population
|
|
genetic bottleneck
|
a sudden reduction in the number of alleles in a population
|
|
Gene Flow
|
the movement of alleles among and between populations due to immigration/ emmigration
|
|
Does gene flow result in a loss or gain of genetic variability?
|
increases genetic variability by potentially changing allele frequency
|
|
Mutation has a (large/small) effect in bacteria?
|
large
|
|
Compared to other evolutionary mechanisms, does mutation have a bigger or smaller role?
|
relatively slow so smaller role in the short run
|
|
Deleterious Allele
|
alleles that lower fitness
|
|
non random mating
|
when individuals are unable or disinclined to mate indiscriminately
|
|
Two mechanisms of non random mating
|
-inbreeding -sexual selection
|
|
inbreeding
|
mating between relatives
|
|
inbreeding depression
|
decline in average fitness that takes place when homozygous increases and heterozygous decreases in a population
|
|
Causes of inbreeding depression
|
1. When many recessive alleles represent loss-of-function mutations 2. When many genes are under intense selection for a heterozygote advantage
|
|
heterozygote advantage
|
heterozygots
|
|
sexual selection
|
occurs when individuals within a population differ in their ability to attract mates
|
|
Two types of sexual selection
|
-female choice -male-to-male competition
|
|
fundamental asymmetry of sex
|
females usually invest more in their offspring than males do
|
|
What are some consequences or features of sexual selection?
|
* Sexually selected traits often differ sharply between the sexes * Sexual dimorphism refers to any trait that differs between males and females of the same species * Impacts secondary sex traits * Violates the assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg principle by causing certain alleles to incr…
|
|
sexual dimorphism
|
refers to any trait that differs between males and females of the same species
|
|
secondary sex traits
|
traits not associated with reproduction direcctly
|
|
directional selection
|
a pattern that increases the frequency of one allele
|
|
natural selection impact
|
reduces a population's genetic diversity
|
|
fixed
|
when alleles become so common they reach 100% or so uncommon they reach 0%
|
|
Stabalizing Selection
|
When natural selection causes the average trait to become more common or essential for survival
|
|
Disruptive Selection
|
individuals on both extremes are favored (no in between)
|
|
balancing selection
|
no single allele has a distinct advantage
|
|
frequency-dependent selection
|
the fitness of a phenotype that is dependent on its relative representation in a population
|
|
speciation
|
when a population becomes genetically isolated for lack of gene flow. The divergence is strengthened by drift, selection and mutations
|
|
Speciation
|
Is where a species splits into two distinct species from a common ancestor
|
|
Speciation
|
Forming new species (micro)
|
|
divergence
|
diversity that arises within a species and stays within that species
|
|
What causes divergence?
|
1. genetic drift 2. ecology (natural selection) - timing of development and divergence 3. mating preferences (sexual selection) - males are more extravagant to attract femals
|
|
What strengthens divergence?
|
drift selection mutation
|
|
What is a species
|
most specific subunit an animal is classified in
|
|
19,) Species on distant oceanic islands are__________ likely than mainland species to feed on food resources that are verydifferent from closely related species. a.more b. less
|
a. more because species on island are in different environment and usually pass through natural selection faster.
|
|
What is meant by species concept?
|
since one definition of species is not adequate for describing what a species is there are instead concepts
|
|
phylogentic species concept
|
based on reconstructing the evolutionary history of a population -advantage- it can be applied to any population -disadvantage -only available for a limited number of populations currently
|
|
morphospecies
|
group of individuals that share common appearance
|
|
What is a distinguishable feature?
|
what we can see that we can use to "tell species apart"
|
|
How are distinguishable species most likely to arise and persist?
|
if populations are independent and isolated from gene flow
|
|
advantages and disadvantages of morphological concept
|
advantages- in can apply in field or with preserved specimens disadvantages- it cannot identify species that differ on a genetic basis -the style is subjective
|
|
Cryptic Species
|
When two or more morphologically indistinguishable species do not interbreed.
|
|
biological species concept
|
defines a species as a group that can breed and produce viable offspring
|
|
What are the advantages and disadvantages of biological species concept
|
disadvantages- cannot classify asexual species or fossils - it can only be applied geographically - difficult to test
|
|
Prezygotic isolation
|
(before-zygote) prevents individuals of different species from mating
|
|
4 types of prezygotic isolation
|
1. temporal - breed at different times 2. habitat 3. behavioral - have different courtship displays 4. gametic barrier- eggs and sperm are incompatible
|
|
Two types of postzygotic isolation.
|
1. hybrid validity - offspring dies as embryo 2. hybrid sterility - hybrid cannot produce offspring
|
|
How does speciation occur most of the time?
|
in allopatry - geographic isolation
|
|
steps in allotropic speciation
|
1. barrier blocks gene flow 2.separated populations genetically diverge 3.isolating mechanisms maintain species identity even if the barrier is overcome
|
|
What are two ways in which physical isolation can occur?
|
1. Dispersal 2. when a population moves to a new habitat, colonizes it, and forms a new population Vicariance 1. when a physical barrier splits a widespread population into subgroups that are now physically isolated from each other
|
|
Sympatry
|
Speciation without geographic isolation
|
|
What is the traditional thought about species arising due to sympatric speciation? In what other ways may new species arise via sympatric speciation?
|
Speciation could not occur among sympatric populations because gene flow is possible and that it would easily overwhelm any differences among populations created by genetic drift and natural selection. Meiotic accidents can yield polyploid offspring with duplicated genomes that are unable…
|
|
Autoploidy
|
failure in meiosis produces diploid gametes
|
|
How would autoploidy give rise to new species?
|
they autoploidy cannot backcross and mate with original species so they must form their own
|
|
rienforcement
|
Selection for traits that isolate populations reproductively
|
|
hybridization
|
interbreeding between species that produces offspring also capable of reproducing
|
|
hybrid zone
|
a region in which genetically distinct populations come into contact and produce at least some offspring of mixed ancestry.
|
|
Locus
|
Physical location of a gene
|
|
Polygeny
|
Many alleles contribute to phenotype.
|
|
Pleiotrophy
|
One gene effects many traits (gene affects secretion of growth hormones)
|
|
Epistasis
|
Effect of one gene depends on a second gene
|
|
Incomplete Dominance
|
Neither trait is dominant (roses)
|
|
S in cell cycle
|
Synthesis (DNA being replicated)
|
|
How many genes on 23 chromosomes?
|
20,000
|
|
Helicase
|
Enzyme to open DNA- breaking hydrogen bonds.
|
|
How many ATGC bases?
|
6 Billion
|
|
Replication fork
|
Where new bases are being added (after DNA poly)
|
|
Epigenetic Inheritance
|
If and when a particular methylated pattern is pressed to offspring.
|
|
DNA methylation
|
When a methyl group (CH3) will attach to cytosine bases preventing gene expression. (long term repression of gene).
|
|
Transduction
|
DNA introduced into a prokaryote by a virus.
|
|
Conjugation
|
One way transfer of DNA in a plasmid from one bact. to another. (plasmids can insert into main chromosome).
|
|
Restriction Enzyme
|
Will recognize a specific ATGC sequence and make a double stranded cut.
|
|
RNA transcriptase
|
An enzyme to make a DNA copy from RNA
|
|
Related species tend to resemble each other more closely during
|
a. early developmental stages. because of particular relation a genus
|
|
An anatomical structure that has no known function but apparently had afunction in an ancestor is considered
|
b. vestigial
|
|
When a population is genetically adapted to a former environment that isno longer present, it is considered
|
d. disruptive selection Species with mid range of phenotype would not survive just the extremes phenotypes
|
|
Transcription factors are produced
|
a. regulatory genes
|
|
Paedomorphosis is a type of
|
d. Heterochrony in definition a change into some different form over time. Example salamander
|
|
The types of genetic changes that are thought to be most important inunderstanding differences between species are thought to be differencesin
|
b. genes that influence when other genes areturned on and off Every species has the dna to make any kind of protein, however how protein is controlled varies.
|
|
The antennae of insects and the nostrils of mammalsare
|
b. analogous insects and mammal are categorized differently as species but do to convergent evolution they share similar features
|
|
The bones in the hind leg of a bird are designed for perching and thebones in the hind leg of a frog for jumping. These bones are given the samename (e.g., femur, tibia, etc.) because they are
|
a. homologous because features a similar due to common ancestor
|
|
True/False. The previous example was an example of convergent evolution.
|
False because convergent would mean that they attains similar traits with different ancestor
|
|
12.a) __________ developed a theory of naturalselection independent of Darwin
|
F. Alfred Wallace
|
|
12.b) __________ believed that human population growthwould outstrip the food supply
|
E. Thomas Malthus
|
|
12.c) __________ is considered the founder of moderntaxonomy (biological classification)
|
A. Linnaeus
|
|
12.d) __________ believed that a study of nature wouldreveal details of the plan of Creation
|
D. Natural Theologians
|
|
12.e) __________ believed that variations amongindividuals were imperfect representations of an ideal form of a species
|
G. Plato
|
|
12.f) _________ believed that small changes,working over long periods of time, could produce major changes
|
H. Gradualist
|
|
12.g) __________ noted similarities in extinct andliving species in South America
|
B. Darwin
|
|
12.h) __________ believed that there was competitionamong peoples of the world, and that the superior would dominate
|
I Social Darwinists
|
|
12.i) __________ believed that the genetic make-up ofhuman populations could be changed and improved
|
C. Eugenicists
|
|
13.) What is paedomorphosis?
|
Paedomorphosis-Retaining juvenile features of an ancestor in the adult form of a descendantspecies
|
|
14.) A typical salamander has __________ levels of thyroid hormone as itmetamorphoses from a juvenile to an adult form
|
a. high
|
|
15.) If the climate cools steadily over a 50 yearperiod, and a rodent species responds by evolving thicker fur, this is anexample of __________ selection.
|
b. directional favoring of one extreme trait
|
|
Evolution outline
|
1. All species have potential to increas 2. However, species numbers are somewhat stable 3. Competition of resources 4. Individuals vary in their ability to compete 5. Some of that variation is heritable 6. Individuals with favorable genetic variation are more likely to survive and reprod…
|
|
Natural Selection factors
|
Temperature,Antibiotics, and pesticide
|
|
Hemeosis
|
Changing of placement of body structures
|
|
What are the regulating genes called that control location of body parts
|
Homeo box
|
|
How many homeo box genes are in invertebrate, primitive vertebrates, most vertebrate?
|
1 set for invertebrates 2 sets for primitive vertebrates 4 sets for most vertebrates
|
|
Factors that help species stay distinct
|
1.)Geographic: Isolation. 2.)Habitat Isolation- Choosing different parts in habitant. 3.)Temporal Isolation- Breeding at different times. 4.)Behavioral Isolation- Different courtship 5.)Mechanical Isolation- Lock + Key (Does Not Fit) 6.)Gametic Isolation- Sperm and Egg will not fuse
|
|
Radioactive probe
|
dna sequence that matches with gene of interest and emits radiation
|
|
Radioactive probe
|
DNA sequence that complements a known sequence of a gene of interest. (emits radioactivity)
|
|
states changes from traditional genetics to modern genetics
|
Much faster to analyze genetics with modern technology than by mendelian way. We can also produce genetically modified organisms.
|
|
Population geneticist tend to ignore mutation true or false
|
true because mutation is not frequent
|
|
Hybrid Inviability
|
When hybrid organism that is formed cannot reproduce with one of its genetically imputed species
|
|
Hybrid inviability
|
Hybrid doesn't survive during development (chromosomal problem)
|
|
Sympatric Speciation
|
Species within same geographic area. Which can lead to rapid mutations.
|
|
EndemicSpecies
|
Species found in one place and no where else in the world
|
|
Do most human population show signs of the founder effect
|
yes there has been evidence of that.
|
|
Why doesn't the founder effect, affect us?
|
Natural selection eliminates over represented founder effect genes. Which causes these genes to become rarer and rarer.
|
|
Assortive matting
|
Individual with similar geneotypes or phenotypes mate. Would not change the frequency of allele. Cause more homozygous individual
|
|
Disassortive mating
|
Mating would be with opposite phenotype and genotype. Allele frequency would remain the same but would result in more heterozygotes.
|
|
Disassortative Mating
|
If AA prefer aa
|
|
Descent with Modification (evolution)
|
Species are descendant from ancestor and have changed over time due to population changes, genes mutation, or population evolving .
|
|
Transcriptome
|
mRNA: gene expression (HGDP)
|
|
Percentage of coding DNA in genome?
|
1-2%
|
|
Copy Number Variation
|
Difference b/w a pop. in the # of copies of genes.
|
|
Pseudogene
|
Similar to coding gene, but non-functional (non-coding DNA).
|
|
Transposable element
|
Mobile DNA that can insert from one chromosome to another.
|
|
Plasmids
|
Move genes to new cells
|
|
DNA LIGASE
|
tie together the cut DNA fragments
|
|
Parasites example of sympatric speciation
|
Parasites that adapt to host become genetically different . So in fact they are no longer similar to other parasite in same region.
|
|
Allopatric Speciation
|
Is where species become different do to a physical separation Like a lake having similar species of fish and than the lake splits and fish are different.
|
|
Ultimate explanation
|
Is where there a behavior can be explained in a more broader sense. Like a bird singing could be due to a warning call. It is sometime we can see, which is more obvious.
|
|
Approximate Explanation
|
Are usually more in depth explanation of an organisms behavior, usually pertaining to physiological properties.
|
|
Agonistic behavior
|
Is where individuals usually males fight for resources
|
|
Watchmaker analogy
|
Implies that because a watch is designed so intricately there must have been a Watchmaker to first have created the watch. Basically a way to say God is real.
|
|
retrotransposons
|
make an RNA sequence that will be made into a DNA sequence that can be inserted into a chromosome.
|
|
Phylogenetics
|
Study of evolutionary relationships among organisms. (traditionally based on anatomy)
|
|
Assortative mating
|
AA prefer AA
|
|
Genetic Drift
|
Random changes in Allele frequency. (SMALL POP MOR SUBJECT TO RANDOM EVENTS)
|
|
Aristotle
|
Adaptation:Fit for envi
|
|
natural theologians
|
Studied nature to understand plan of creation (Watchmaker analogy: complex universe=designed)
|
|
Linnaeus
|
Founder of modern taxonomy (Scientific oriented name: Canis (genus) Lupus (species))
|
|
Social Darwinism
|
Competition among human groups "Survival of..."
|
|
Eugenics
|
Attempt to improve genetic make-up of humans.
|
|
Hybrid Sterility
|
Adult hybrid cannot reproduce ex. mule
|
|
Allopatric Speciaion
|
2 species evolving from one species because population becoming geo separated
|
|
Adaptive Radiation
|
When many species evolve from one ancestor
|
|
Endemic Species
|
Species found in one place and no other place in the world.
|
|
Sympatric Speciation
|
Species within same geograph.
|
|
Sympatric Speciation
|
species w/in same geo.
|
|
Allopatric Speciation
|
2 species evolving from one species because of pop becoming separated.
|
|
Hetrochorny
|
Turning on and off genes a diff time during development
|
|
Metamorphasis (salamander)
|
Requires thyroid hormone to happen
|
|
Homosasis
|
Changing the placement of structures on the body
|
|
Homeopox
|
Series of genes regulating placement of structures
|
|
Agnostic behavious
|
Conflict display
|
|
Dominence hierarchy
|
Consistent Dom r/ships in a group
|
|
DNA is transcribed into
|
messager RNA ( mRNA)
|
|
mRna is altered in
|
Nucleus ( processing of messager RNA)
|
|
Processed mRNA is transported to the
|
Cytoplasms( where the ribosome are going to be)
|
|
mRNa is translated in a sequence of amino Acid ( polypeptide Chain) at the
|
Ribosome
|
|
RNA polymerase 2
|
transcribes genes into mRNA elongates in the 5' to 3' direction can only add to the 3' end
|
|
Processing of MRNA
|
Introns and Extrons Cut the introns and and link togethere the exons
|
|
Alternative Splicing
|
* different splicing pathways that allow a single transcript to give rise to different mRNAs by a removing introns in different combinations * Adds 5' cap to the MRNA at the end and a poly A tail at the other end
|
|
The Cap and Poly A Tail
|
Helps Ribosomes grab it correctly
|
|
Ribosomes
|
Created in the nucleus but brought to the cytoplasm
|
|
The cytoplasm is merely made out of
|
Mrna
|
|
Ribosomes sites for transfer
|
* A ( Where TRNa a ttaches to ribosome) * P ( Where amino acid are linked together ( p eptide) * E ( E xit Site )
|
|
What brings the the information to the ribosomes
|
TRNA
|
|
Post translation alternation
|
* First Methronire is typically cut off * 2 or or more polypeptide join togethere to form final protein * Protein may be destroyed before being used together
|
|
Movement of H2O
|
H2O into roots byosmosis (root hairs, mycorrhizae) through narrowxylem tubes Water is polar,water stick together Pull H2O up throughevaporation
|
|
Movement of sugars
|
Duringphotosynthesis- leaves are source of sugar (produced in excess) Otherregions of plant- sugar sink. Sugar stored ascarbohydrates underground (modified roots, stems)- beets, carrots
|
|
Source (transportation of sugar)
|
used in excess.
|
|
Sink (transportation of sugar)
|
Used up.
|
|
Carbohydrate
|
areplants long term energy source not fat
|
|
Perenial
|
Plant that comes back every year
|
|
Daffodil
|
Bloom in April Photosynthesize until mid June Stores energy in bulb Dormat in winter
|
|
Germination of dicot seeds
|
Forseed to germinate- need: water, O2 (through the seed coat).
|
|
Structure of seed
|
embryo,nourishing tissue, seed coat.
|
|
Monocot (leaf)
|
withone embryonic leaves
|
|
Dikot (leaf)
|
withtwo embryonic leaves
|
|
Apical meristem
|
willinhibit lateral branching through hormones moving down the stem.
|
|
Prunethe primary stems
|
Producea bushier plant. "" lateral '''- produce a tree like plant.
|
|
Pruning control
|
Pruning can bemanipulated during vegetation season to allow plants to produce more fruit.
|
|
Auxin
|
hormonal-promoter cell division
|
|
auxin
|
Promotes cell division
|
|
Giberrelins
|
inter node growth.
|
|
Giberrelins
|
Internode growth
|
|
Ethylene
|
releasedfrom ripening fruit. Causes other fruit to ripen. Positive feedback loop.
|
|
Ethylene
|
Released from ripening fruits + Causes other fruits to ripen
|
|
Characteristics of ripening fruit
|
1. Color change 2. Acids----sugar 3. Grow in size 4. Become softer
|
|
Purpose of fruit in plants
|
isa mechanism for seed dispersal byanimals.
|
|
Slow down ripening
|
* Cool temperature. * Ventilate to remove ethylene * Use CO2 (inhibitory)
|
|
Long day plants
|
flowerin late spring or early summer (example woodland flowers) (shortnight)
|
|
Short day plants
|
(longnight)- flower in late summer (ex: Daises, Mums)
|
|
neutral plants
|
usea non-light environmental cue to flower.
|
|
To inhabit flowering
|
unnaturally- exposeplant to brief light in the middle of dark period.
|
|
Tropism
|
Is a movement
|
|
Positive phototropism
|
moretoward light (Ex: stem)
|
|
Positive phototropism
|
Move twd light (stem)
|
|
Negative tropism
|
away from light (example Root)
|
|
Positive Gravitropism-
|
movein direction of force of gravity (Ex: Roots)
|
|
Positive gravitropism
|
Move in direction of force of gravity (roots)
|
|
Negative Gravitropism
|
away(Ex: stems)
|
|
Fungi are hetrotropes
|
because they were once classified as plants
|
|
Ecology
|
Study if interaction of organisms w/their envi.
|
|
Ecosystem
|
All organisms in their physical and biotic envi.
|
|
Community
|
All individuals of all species in habitat
|
|
Community ecology
|
The physical and biotic interactions that influence the distribution and abundance of species.
|
|
Niche
|
An organism use of biotic and abiotic resources (where it lives, eats, temp, humidity required, how it escapes predators)
|
|
Fundamental niche
|
Every place and circumstance it can survive the physical conditions
|
|
Realized Niche
|
The place and circumstance it can survive the physical conditions
|
|
fungus that lives in association with plant roots .
|
D. Mycorhizzae
|
|
phylum that has fusion of + and - nuclei which is not immediately followed by meiosis
|
C. Ascomycetes
|
|
mushrooms
|
A. Basidiomycetes
|
|
fungus that grows in association with photosynthetic algae
|
G. Lichens
|
|
fungi for which no sexual reproductive stage has ever been observed
|
E. Fungi Imperfecti
|
|
has both a diploid and haploid sporangium
|
B. Zygomycetes
|
|
unicelular organism
|
F. Yeast
|
|
Neg phototropism
|
Move in direction away from gravitya
|
|
Moss
|
Grow in mats. No pollen + seeds, weak vascular tissue, short plants
|
|
Ferns
|
Vascular, no pollen +seed, taller, moist envi
|
|
Male moss
|
Antheridium
|
|
VOCs
|
volatile organic compounds. low molecular weight compounds that evaporate easily at STP
|
|
plant to plant signaling process:
|
1. transport 2. absorption 3. perception/ reception
|
|
plant "eavesdropping"
|
when plants are placed near another plant that is giving off VOCs saying it is damaged, those plants will then increase their chemical defenses
|
|
phototropism
|
the movement of plants toward light
|
|
phototropins
|
a class of proteins in membranes that become phosphorylated in response to blue light
|
|
auxin
|
a polar hormone that travels from shoot to root and elongates plant cells in the shade so the plant bends towards the light
|
|
six classes of plant hormones
|
auxins gibberellins cytokinins abscisic acid ethylene brassinosteroids
|
|
functions of auxin:
|
-elongation of growing tissues -stimulate lateral root formation -involved in gravity perception by the root cap -produced by developing seeds to stimulate fruit development
|
|
gibberellins
|
plant hormones that regulate plant height and help fruit grow along with auxin
|
|
cytokinins
|
plant hormones that in the presence of auxin, regulate cell division, influence cell differentiation, and suppress the growth of lateral buds
|
|
abscisic acid (ABA)
|
a seed maturation and anti-stress signal
|
|
ethylene
|
a gaseous hormone that is produced in response to stress or damage and causes fruit to ripen (put in bananas)
|
|
brassinosteroids
|
a class of hormones that mimics the effects of auxin. Key regulator of overall body size
|
|
photomorphog-enesis
|
light regulation of plant development
|
|
phytochromes
|
red light receptors in plants
|
|
blue light regulates:
|
stomatal opening, phototrophism,and induces hypocotyl elongation during seedling development
|
|
water's influence on roots:
|
ABA generated by dryness causes root elongation and girth increase. triggered by a decrease in ethylene
|
|
wind influence on growth:
|
causes shorter/wider stems triggered by an increase in ethylene
|
|
plant basal immune system
|
a receptor receives a pathogen and triggers a defense response
|
|
plant specific immune system
|
pathogens enter a plant cell and an R protein binds with the AVR protein produced by the pathogen then basal resistance activates defensive genes
|
|
parasitic plants
|
ex. dodder or mistletoe. inject their tissues into the phloem of a host plant
|
|
hypersensitive response
|
looks like a rash on a plant and shows damage on leaves (like allergies)
|
|
vascular wilt disease
|
plant senses infection and kills off that part of the plant
|
|
plant viral defense
|
virus infects plant, during replication the plant recognizes that the dsRNA is foreign and kills it
|
|
apical meristems are _____ in grass to _____
|
on the ground to protect the blades and allow them to grow after being cut
|
|
mycelium
|
the entire mass of hyphae that make up the body of a fungus
|
|
hypha
|
the individual filament of fungal cells
|
|
_____ are absorptive heterotrophs
|
fungi
|
|
fairy ring
|
a cluster of fruiting bodies above ground that border the mycelium of a fungi that's below ground
|
|
fungi of the same mating type _____
|
don't reproduce
|
|
lichens
|
mutualistic associations between plants and ascomycete fungus
|
|
yeast don't have ____
|
hyphae
|
|
basidiomycetes
|
smuts, rusts, toadstools
|
|
slime molds have ____ life stage forms
|
two: plasmodium and fruiting body
|
|
slime molds are ______
|
not fungi
|
|
parthenogenesis
|
sexual organisms that can produce copies of themselves if stimulated
|
|
what is the advantage of being asexual?
|
sexual reproduction takes time and energy
|
|
benefits of producing asexually:
|
everyone produces offspring not just females. there's exponential population growth
|
|
sexual reproduction has a higher failure rate offset by:
|
lots of gametes being produced and getting the sperm close to the eggs
|
|
r-strategy
|
produce lots of offspring with little care by parents
|
|
K-strategy
|
produce fewer offsprings with greater parental care
|
|
amnion
|
fluid sac that allows for more freedom from water reproduction
|
|
cleavage
|
early cell divisions of the zygote
|
|
blastula
|
a hollow ball following cleavage
|
|
gastrula
|
a multiple-layered embryonic stage of development
|
|
gastrulation
|
blastula becomes a three-layered ball
|
|
hox genes
|
regulate development of major features of body form in animals (are always located at those body forms. eye cells are the same in all animals)
|
|
suspension feeders
|
take in floating things and ingest them
|
|
diploblasts
|
only have an ectoderm and endoderm with gelatinous material between
|
|
cnidaria
|
radially symmetric, cnidocytes, blind gut, polyp and medusa stages, solitary or colonial
|
|
trochophore
|
ciliated larval form found in annelida and mollusca
|
|
Rotifera
|
"wheel bearers" pseudocoelomates, ciliated corona, reproduce sexually
|
|
Platyhelminthes
|
"flat worm" broken into turbellaria, trematoda, cestoda. coelomates. free living or parasitic. doors-ventrally flattened body. hermaphrodites
|
|
cestoda
|
2+ hosts. have no gut= absorb nutrients through its tegument
|
|
Annelida
|
trochophore larva. coelomates. hydrostatic skeleton. segmentation.
|
|
three classes of Annelida:
|
oligochaeta- earthworm polychaeta- bait worm hirudinea- leech
|
|
Mollusca
|
trochophore larva. coelomates. mantle used for respiration
|
|
classes of Mollusca:
|
bivalvia- clams gastropoda- snails cephalopoda- octopus
|
|
special characteristic of bivalvia
|
lost cephalization
|
|
special characteristic of cephalopoda
|
mimicry
|
|
Ecdysozoa
|
broken into two phyla: Nematoda and Arthropoda. go through ecdysis
|
|
ecdysis
|
molting/shedding of the cuticle or exoskeleton
|
|
Nematoda
|
unsegmented. pseudocoelom. some are parasitic.
|
|
Arthropoda
|
segmented. jointed appendages. stiff cuticle made of chitin
|
|
ametabolous
|
young and adults only change in size
|
|
hemimetabolous
|
young resemble adults (ex. grasshopper)
|
|
holometabolous
|
young look completely different from adults (ex. butterfly)
|
|
protostomes
|
the mouth forms first
|
|
deuterostomes
|
the anus forms first
|
|
protostome characteristics:
|
spiral cleavage. cell fate is set in embryo development
|
|
deuterostome characteristics:
|
radial cleavage. cell fate is set late in the blastula
|
|
hemichordates
|
marine-dwelling bottom feeders. sister group to echinoderms
|
|
Echinodermata
|
ex. sea stars. unsegmented. pentaradially symmetric. endoskeleton. no head only oral and aboral sides
|
|
Chondrichthyes
|
carnivorous cartilaginous fish
|
|
Osteichthyes
|
bony fish (what we eat) divided into ray finned and fleshy(lobe) finned
|
|
Amphibia
|
tetrapods that still require water for reproduction
|
|
Amniotes
|
organisms that produce amnion which prevents dessication
|
|
Reptilia
|
amniotes with scales of keratin
|
|
Matrotrophy
|
direct nourishment of embryo by mother
|
|
behavior
|
any action by an organism that is generally a response to a stimulus
|
|
proximate causality
|
"how" what stimulus triggers the behavior and what are the genetic mechanisms underlying the behavior
|
|
ultimate causality
|
"why" why did natural selection favor this behavior and how does it improve fitness
|
|
Tinbergen's questions:
|
causation development adaptive function evolutionary history
|
|
causation (Tinbergen)
|
physically how the behavior works
|
|
development (Tinbergen)
|
how the behavior developed (from early age to adulthood)
|
|
adaptive function (Tinbergen)
|
why this behavior was favored by natural selection
|
|
evolutionary history (Tinbergen)
|
how this behavior evolved
|
|
fixed action pattern (FAP)
|
an "innate" behavior. sequence of unlearned behaviors that are essentially unchangeable
|
|
migration
|
the long distance movement of a population associated with the change of seasons/resources
|
|
piloting
|
the use of familiar landmarks to navigate
|
|
compass orientation
|
movement in a particular direction
|
|
altruistic behaviors
|
decrease the fitness of the organism exhibiting the behaviors and increase the fitness of the recipient
|
|
kin selection
|
natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors directed at close relatives
|
|
optimal foraging theory
|
choose what to eat based on how cheap you can get it
|
|
sexual dimorphism
|
males and females of a species look different
|
|
usable energy
|
the energy taken in minus the energy spend
|
|
allelomimetic behavior
|
doing what those around you do
|
|
population
|
all of the individuals of a given species that live and reproduce in a given area
|
|
features of populations:
|
size= # of individuals range= area they cover density= individuals per area
|
|
random distribution
|
individuals have equal chance of occupying any position
|
|
clumped distribution
|
resources are clustered and enhance each other's survival
|
|
over-dispersed distribution
|
limited resources/competition between individuals
|
|
change in N over change in time
|
growth rate
|
|
growth rate over number of individuals
|
per capita growth rate (r)
|
|
density-independent factors
|
limit populations regardless of population density. droughts or severe events. environmental conditions
|
|
density-dependent factors
|
competition for limited resources. predation, parasitism. disease
|
|
carrying capacity (K)
|
limit to growth
|
|
when K is close to 1
|
growth rate is low and population is small
|
|
when K is close to 0
|
growth rate is low and population is large
|
|
when K is close to 0.5
|
growth rate is high and population size in intermediate
|
|
census
|
count every individual (not practical)
|
|
sampling
|
plots or transects to count individuals in a smaller area
|
|
mark-and-recapture
|
catch, mark, release, estimate
|
|
demography
|
study of statistics such as birth rates,age or size structure, and distribution over time
|
|
community
|
sets of populations of different species that live in the same are and can potentially interact
|
|
obligate
|
absolutely required
|
|
facultative
|
optional
|
|
batesian mimicry
|
a harmless species mimics a harmful one
|
|
Mullerian mimicry
|
two unpalatable species that are both harmful mimic each other
|
|
interspecific competition
|
occurs when different species use the same limiting resource
|
|
trophic structure
|
describes feeding relationships (ex. food chain)
|
|
ecosystem engineers
|
change the environment that they live in (ex. beavers making dams)
|
|
succession
|
a process of recovery from disturbance
|
|
aposematic coloration
|
pattern of color that wants predators of toxicity
|
|
statistical variance
|
a measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out. when 0 means all values are the same. gives a measure of how the data are distributed about the mean
|
|
what can cause genetic variation?
|
a mutation (somatic or germ-line). then recombination gives new combinations not present in parent population
|
|
what is evolution?
|
a change in allele or genotype frequency in a population over time
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg conditions
|
no natural selection. random mating. no mutation. no migration. = no evolution
|
|
natural selection
|
occurs when individuals with certain traits produce more offspring than do individuals without those traits
|
|
heterozygote advantage
|
when a recessive bad allele can be masked by a dominant good allele. (ex: het. for sickle cell can't get malaria)
|
|
stabilizing selection
|
selection against the extremes (for the mean)
|
|
directional selection
|
selection against one of the two extremes
|
|
disruptive selection
|
selects against the mean
|
|
artificial selection
|
selection by a breeder rather than by competition
|
|
factors other than natural selection that cause changes in allele frequencies:
|
migration mutation genetic drift
|
|
genetic drift
|
a random change in an allele frequency
|
|
founder effect
|
when some individuals of a population leave and establish a new population
|
|
population bottleneck
|
a sudden decrease in population size due to high mortality strikes at random
|
|
gene flow
|
the movement of alleles among and between populations due to immigration
|
|
mutation
|
a random change in base pair
|
|
deleterious alleles
|
deleterious alleles
|
|
biological species concept
|
organisms that can breed fertile offspring are of the same species
|
|
morphospecies concept
|
organisms that look alike are of the same species
|
|
ring species
|
organisms that are of the same species but don't look alike
|
|
limitations of the BSC
|
-difficult to apply in real world -cannot be applied to asexual or extinct organisms -do not account for genetic exchange in ring species -does not account of hybridization in plants
|
|
ecological species concept (ESC)
|
if two organisms have the same niche then they are of the same species
|
|
evolutionary species concept (EvSC)
|
species determination in asexual organisms
|
|
pre-zygotic reproductive isolation
|
behavioral, physical, time (temporal) and space (ecological)
|
|
post-zygotic reproductive isolation
|
genetic incompatibility usually leading to failure of the zygote to develop
|
|
adaptive radiation
|
rapid evolution that creates many different species
|
|
peripatric speciation
|
organisms of the same species moving to different places and adapting = sub-species
|
|
co-speciation
|
when organisms speciate in response to each other
|
|
sympatric speciation
|
result of disruptive selection. speciation while living in the same place
|
|
plant polyploidy
|
with hybridization, the offspring have a different number of chromosomes than the parent generation and cannot reproduce with the parent generation (instant speciation)
|
|
monophyletic
|
the common ancestor and all of its descendants
|
|
paraphyletic
|
common ancestor and some button all descendants
|
|
polyphyletic
|
excludes the common ancestor
|
|
synapomorphy
|
shared derived character
|
|
shared derived character
|
a scaffolding of dynamic proteins
|
|
phagocytosis
|
engulf, package, transport and digest food particles
|
|
animals have ___ multicellular phase where plants have ____
|
one. two.
|
|
mitochondria formed by ____
|
endosymbiosis of proteobacteria
|
|
chloroplasts formed by ____
|
endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria
|
|
choanoflagellates
|
unicellular protists. have microvilli ring with a single flagellum. closest genome to animals
|
|
coenocytic cell
|
single cell with multiple nuclei
|
|
slug
|
aggregation formed by starved bacteria that form a sporangia
|
|
red algae
|
marine. walls of cellulose. used in toothpaste, ice cream, and agar
|
|
green algae
|
differences in form, chlorophyll a and b, phytoplankton. FW. origin of land plants
|
|
stramenopila
|
brown algae and diatoms. have one flagellum with hair and another without
|
|
diatoms
|
responsible for 25% of PSN on earth
|
|
brown algae
|
kelps. have organs on the outside of their body. home for otters
|
|
Alveolata
|
"with cavities" dinoflagellates and ciliates
|
|
PSN origins
|
eukaryotes got PSN many times by repeated episodes of endosymbiosis
|
|
coccolithophorids
|
marine protistans. primary ocean photosynthesizer
|
|
simple multicellularity
|
form filamentous, hollow balls, or flat sheets. adhesions molecules for sticking together. most cells retain full range of functions. cells are in direct contact with environment
|
|
who are the simple multicellulars?
|
fungi, algae, slime molds, sporozoans and cnidosporas, dinoflagellates
|
|
why be multicellular?
|
avoid predators float better withstand disturbance withstand desiccation
|
|
features of complex multicellularity:
|
highly developed adhesion. structures for cell communication. tissue and organ differentiation. small subset of cells contribute to reproduction. cell or tissue loss can be lethal. interior and exterior cells
|
|
diffusion
|
movement of molecules from areas of high to low concentration acting over small distances
|
|
bulk transport
|
the means by which molecules move through organisms at rates beyond those possible by diffusion across a concentration gradient
|
|
cell adhesion in animals:
|
cadherins, integrins, and transmembrane proteins
|
|
cell adhesion in plants:
|
pectins
|
|
gap junctions:
|
cell communication in animals where proteins make intercellular connections
|
|
plasmodesmata
|
cell communication in plants. intercellular connections lined by extensions of the cell membrane that also contain a tubule connecting the neighboring cells
|
|
functions of a leaf:
|
gas exchange between the environment and plant. PSN. transpiration
|
|
stomata ____ when water flows in and ____ when water flows out
|
open. close.
|
|
difference between stoma in a fern and an angiosperm?
|
angiosperm stoma open wider = more intake of CO2 and water
|
|
CAM photosynthesis
|
stomata open at night. store CO2 in vacuole. close stomata at daybreak. perform PSN during the day with stored CO2
|
|
difference between C4 and CAM?
|
C4 plants suppress photorespiration (conserve CO2) *space issue*. CAM has a water loss issue and stores CO2 to use during the day
|
|
xylem
|
dead cells. tracheids and vessel elements that transport water long distances from root to shoot.
|
|
risks of xylem conduits?
|
cavitation due to an air leak. cavitation due to freeze and thaw. collapse.
|
|
phloem
|
functions in the long distance transport of sugars fixed during PSN. need companion cells to carry out normal cell processes
|
|
rhizosphere
|
the soil layer that surrounds actively growing roots
|
|
Casparian strip
|
"gatekeeper" controls what is let into the roots of the plant and what is not
|
|
zone of maturation
|
part of the root where root hair develop
|
|
mycorrhizae
|
entend the surface area over which water and soil nutrients can be taken in by plants
|
|
how do plants get nitrogen?
|
rhizobia (bacteria) fix it in the soil
|
|
epiphytes
|
absorb nutrients from rain water and dust that accumulate around their leaves
|
|
primary plant growth
|
growth in length
|
|
secondary plant growth
|
growth in girth
|
|
plants grow by increasing the number of _____
|
organs (leaves, stems, roots, and flowers)
|
|
apical meristems
|
parts of plants that produce new cells and organs
|
|
elongation zone
|
part of the plant where the cells are actively growing and increasing length
|
|
arbuscles
|
produced by endomycorrhizae
|
|
primordium
|
"this is the first time that we can cal this group of cells a ____"
|
|
primary cell walls
|
synthesized on the outside surface of the plasma membrane during cell expansion
|
|
vascular cambium
|
wood. created by new xylem added to the back
|
|
cork cambium
|
bark. created by new phloem added to the front
|
|
lenticels
|
the gas exchange point of contact for wood
|
|
sporopollenin
|
a polymer that is highly resistant to decry that protects interior tissues from desiccation
|
|
characteristics of all bryophytes:
|
small. non-vascular. no roots or leaves. no secondary cell walls (lignin)
|
|
in all vascular plants the _____ generation is dominant
|
sporophyte
|
|
lycophytes
|
club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts. branched. vascular. trees dominated forests but went extinct. microphylls (leaves with a single vascular bundle)
|
|
pteridophytes
|
sori. rhizome and rhizoids. vascular.
|
|
prothallus
|
haploid gametophyte with gametangia
|
|
homosporous
|
ferns. produce one spore type that makes both gametophytes
|
|
heterosporous
|
seeded plants. makes two types of spores that produce microgametophyte and megagametophyte
|
|
light reactions occur in the ____
|
lumen and thylakoid membrane
|
|
the Calvin cycle occurs in the ____
|
stroma
|
|
thee major parts of the Calvin Cycle:
|
1. carboxylation 2. reduction 3. regeneration
|
|
carboxylation
|
the addition of CO2 to the RuBP. catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco
|
|
reduction
|
NADPH transfers high-energy electrons
|
|
regeneration
|
3-carbon compounds are reorganized and combined to produce 5-carbon RuBP
|
|
chlorophyll a and b molecules absorb both ____ and _____ light
|
blue and red. NOT green
|
|
reaction center
|
where light energy gets converted to chemical energy
|
|
cyclic electron transport
|
electrons are shunted around and brought back to the beginning to the photosynthesis cycle in order to be used if they weren't used before
|
|
photosynthesis I
|
Calvin cycle. Uses energy from the light reaction and converts it to carbohydrates
|
BIOL 1108: FINAL