COMM 415: EXAM 2
95 Cards in this Set
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What kind of info is conveyed through use of space?
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1) Regulate Conversation
2) Indicator of Attitude towards another person
3) Sign of Status
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Three categories of space (e.g., fixed-feature, etc.)
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1) fixed-feature~ location of physical unmovable structures – lecture hall and movie theater chairs are locked in;
2) semi-fixed~location of movable objects – the desk in lecture room. Things in house that you can move around but you must interact with ex. Table;
3) informal or pers…
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Four regions of proxemics (e.g., intimate, personal, etc.)
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· Intimate: 0-18 inches
· Personal: 18 in.-4 ft.
· Social: 4-12 ft.
· Public: 12 ft.+
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Children's use of space
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no personal space before 5yrs. Old
Boys play with toys that demand more space
Girls play with dolls that are more closely interactive and intimate
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Sociopetal vs. Sociofugal space
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Sociopetal : space is organized so that it is conducive to communication between people.
Sociofugal : space is arranged so that it produces solitude, and inhibits interaction between people.
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Age and use of space
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· Adults expect norms for conversational distance to be learned before the age of 10
· Okay for 5 year old to run invade personal space of others, but not okay for 10 year old
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Male-female differences in use of space
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· Females interact more closely with people than males do in neutral or friendly conversations; farther distance in threatening or alienating situations
· Female-Female interact most closely
· Males-Males interact most distantly
· Mixed sex interact intermedia…
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Are there universals (across culture) in spatial use?
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a. No universals in space use. – psychologically they experience space differently.
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Crowding vs. Density
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Crowding = psychological phenomenon.
Density = physical phenomenon (dimensions of a room)
Density: Refers to the number of people per unit of space
Crowding: A feeling state that may develop in high- or low-density situations
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Contact vs. noncontact cultures
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· Contact Cultures:
o Face one another more directly
o Interact more closely
o Touch more
o Look in eyes more
o Speak in louder voice
o (Arabs, Latin Americans, southern Europeans)
· Noncontact Cultures:
o Asians, Indians, Pakistanis, northern Euro…
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Extraversion, social anxiety, need for affiliation and use of space
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Preferences for closer space increases with increasing degrees of extraversion
· People who are high in social anxiety tend to use further/longer interacting distance.
· People high in need for affiliation use closer interacting distances.
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Distance and arousal
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Too close = arousal (for everyone).
Too far (uncomfortable) = arousal (for women)
Changes in skin conductance
The closer the invasion, the sooner the evacuation
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The relationships between crowding and performance
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· Curvilinear relationship between crowding and performance.
o Middle arranged amount of people is best for optimal learning.
· Close space with strangers is more “crowding” than w/friends.
· Most crowding with male strangers, least with female friends
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Space and restaurant tipping
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i. Waitresses approached patrons seated by themselves in a restaurant in France at .5, 1.5, or 2.5ft.
ii. A greater % of customers in the close condition left a tip.
iii. Customers in the close condition left higher tips than those in the other conditions.
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Space and threats of violence
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o Assuming a boxer’s stance
o Invasion of personal space
· These cues are the same across races.
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Intimacy Equilibrium Theory
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People are subjects to 2 motivations in interpersonal interactions:
1. Being intimate (approach)
2. Stay separate (avoid)
· The balance between these 2 motivations is a point of equilibrium.
· If o…
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Arousal-Labeling Theory
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Close distance generates arousal in the decoder.
· If this arousal is labeled positively, the decoder will approach (reciprocate).
· If this arousal is labeled negatively, the decoder will avoid (compensate).
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What kind of info is carried in facial expression?
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o Major function:
§ To convey emotion
· + Attitudes toward other people and objects
· Some facial expressions are emblematic
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Four different sign vehicles (e.g., static, slow, etc.)
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o STATIC: remain constant
Ex: shape of nose, eye color
o SLOW: reliability change with age
Ex: extent to which skin is wrinkled, sagging cheeks, baggy eyes
o RAPID: change in a matter of seconds
o ARTIFICIAL: cosmetics or facial treatments used to enhanc…
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Slow sign vehicles and mortality
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o University students rated the apparent age of the person
o Rated age spanned 63-85 years
o 108 of the 292 participants died in the following 6 years
o the hazards of dying was predicted by how old the person was judged to be in the photo
o 8% greater mortality hazard pe…
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The primary facial expressions of emotion (6)
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o Happiness/ joy
o Sadness
o Anger
o Surprise
o Disgust
o Fear
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A universal expression for pride?
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o Happy face (smile)
o Head tilted back
o Chest out
o Hands on the hips or raised in air
o Children as young as 4 can identify this
o Isolated African tribal culture can identify
o Might function to mark/maintain status
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Facial feedback hypothesis
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States that facial movement can influence emotional experience
Someone forced to smile during a social event will actually come to find the event more of an enjoyable experience
- Peripheralist
Facial muscle activityà emotion
Muscle activity and cognitive appraisal lead to à e…
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Facial expressions in nonhuman primates (e.g. grimace, etc.)
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o Grimace= fear
o Tense-mouth display= anger
o Play face= happiness/ joy
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The Miller & Deets (1976) "executive monkey" study
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o Monkey in restraining chair
o Light goes off, 6 seconds later—shock
o Prevent shock with lever press within 6 seconds
o Lever was taken away from “stimulus” monkey and given to “responder” monkey
o Responder monkey also hooked up
o Responder monkey could only see fa…
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Can domestic dogs decode human facial expression?
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o [YES]
o Sausage, garlic, or wood shavings hidden in a box
o Human looked in box with happy, disgust, or neutral facial expression
o Dogs used the experimenter’s happy facial expression to locate the hidden food—went to box associated with happy face vs. disgust face 55% of …
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Infants' use of facial expression
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o Facial muscles formed at birth
o Distinct expression early in infancy
o Social smiling 3-4 weeks, full blown smile (Duchenne) in 3 months
o Imitation in 1-2 days neonate facial imitation
o No genuine emotion until 18 months?
o Management of emotional expression 6-10…
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Do infants decode facial expressions differently (i.e., discriminate between different expressions)? At what age?
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o Adults posed facial expressions to neonates (people who are just born)
o Neonates’ visual fixation and facial movement was measured
o Neonates showed difference visual fixation patterns in response to different facial expressions
o Observer could guess which face was being …
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Phony smiles vs. felt smiles
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· Phony:
o Slightly asymmetrical (stronger on the left)
o May occur at socially inappropriate times
o Do not involve “crinkly-eye” appearance
o Excessively long apex durations, short onset times, and irregular offset times
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Display rules
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o Display rules: cultural, personal, situational factors that modify the conditions that elicit emotion or its expression
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What types of expressions are easiest to decode?
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o Easiest:
§ 1. Happiness
§ 2. Sadness
§ 3. Anger
§ 4. Fear
§ 5. Disgust
§ 6. Surprise
o Positive emotions are easier to decode than negative emotions in the face (Zuckerman)
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Sex differences in decoding accuracy
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o Females perform better than males
o Sex difference already evident in childhood
o 53% of girls perform above average
o 46% of boys perform above average
o No increase in the sex difference over time
o Neurobehavioral maturation model (early in life)
o Social sca…
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Mixing of facial emotions and gender of the encoder
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o Gender-neutral computer images
o Varying expressions and anger and happiness
o Subjects were quicker to label “angry” faces as “male” and “happy” faced as “female”
o Signals for facial expression of emotion and masculinity/femininity have merged over time
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Facial decoding and clinical problems
**alcoholism**
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o Recovering alcoholics & control subjects viewed slides
o Multiple choice test
o Lower accuracy in alcoholic group
o Unaware of their deficit
o More interpersonal problems in alcoholic group
o These were negatively associated with their performance on the facial reco…
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Facial decoding and clinical problems
**autism**
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o Autism: expressive & receptive communication deficits
o Adults with and without autism shown faces and shapes
o Press button for Female face or circle
o fMRI while performing task
o Autism and control group performed as well at face and shape recognition
o But diffe…
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Facial decoding and clinical problems
**social anxiety**
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o Social anxiety: over-aroused in social situations
§ People make them nervous
o Children shown photos of pos., neutral, or negative facial expressions
o Press J etc. buttons for each
o Anxious and non-anxious children had comparable performance
o But anxious children…
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What takes more mental effort: processing pretty and not-so-pretty faces?
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Preference for looking at attractive faces
Both groups took longer to classify unattractive faces
o Brain activity in 4 year olds and adults higher when gazing at unattractive faces
o Beauty: average of group’s features
o People like prototypes-easy to categorize
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Decoding infant expressions by mothers
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o First time mothers vs. never mothers
o Attention capture task
o Infant faces in general, and emotional infant faces in particular, engage attention compared to adult faces
o For mothers, infant faces were more salient
o Adaptive behavioral change with parenthood
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Effect of oxytocin on decoding facial expression
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· Oxytocin (OT): neuropeptide secreted from the posterior pituitary
· Critical role in mammalian social behavior
· Trust, cooperation, relaxation round others
· Intranasal OT administration enhances emotion recognition of faces
· Especially pronounced …
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Is there an interactive effect for facial expressions? (angry, happy, yawning faces)
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o Dimberg (1982): look at happy and sad faces
o Meltzoff: infant imitation
o Hatfield (1990): watch video of man telling happy/sad story
o Provine (1986): yawning
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Effect of baby face (static sign vehicle) appearance on helping
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o Computer generated face
o Attached to resume
o “Lost” in US and Kenya
o Measure of helping= return
o More baby-face resumes returned in both cultures
o Baby-face elicits helping response
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Methods of measurement of facial expression (e.g., observer judgment, facial EMG)
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o Human Judgments
§ Observer judgment
§ Direct measurement (muscle actions)
o Physiological Measurement
§ Facial EMG (electromyography)
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What is communicated by touch?
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· Greeting
· Hostility
· Reassurance
· Instruction
· Liking
· Power
· Sexuality
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Factors that influence the meaning of touch
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· What part of the body is touched
· What part of the other person’s body touched the self
· How long the touch lasts
· How much pressure is used
· Whether there is movement after contact has been made
· Whether anyone else is present
· …
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Five situations/relations involving touch (Heslin)
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1)Functional/professional
2) Social/polite
3) Friendship/warmth
4) Love/intimacy
5) Sexual arousal
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Cultural differences in touch
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· Contact vs. noncontact cultures
· Arabs > Americans
· Costa Ricans > Americans
· Italian & Greek > British, Dutch, French
· Different meanings in different cultures (e.g. same sex touch)
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Male-female differences in reactions to touch
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· Nguyen et al. (1975)
· Men and women agree on what kind of touch signifies sexual desire
· They differ in their reactions
· Men: sexual touch (+)
· Women: sexual touch (-)
· Presumably not married
· Nguyen et al. (1976)
· Th…
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How does marriage (or age) appear to influence these male female differences?
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· Touch to nonintimate body regions: men’s reactions = positive than women’s
· Touch to intimate body regions: men’s reactions more positive than women’s
· Unmarried men responded more positively to intimate touch than married men did
· Pattern holds even afte…
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Do females touch males more than males touch females?
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· M à F = M à M touch
· M initiate more touches but F reciprocate so M = F
· F may touch less earlier and more later in relationship development
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Sex differences in relational stage and touch
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· Men initiate more touch in casual romantic relationships
· Women initiate more touch in married relationships
· In young (< 20 years) couples, men initiate more touch
· In older couples (20s, 30s, 40s) women initiate more touch and men touched rarely
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M-F differences in touch in sports contexts
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· College softball & baseball teams observed
· Males performed more hand à other body part touch (e.g. butt slap, head shake)
· Females performed more hand à hand touches (e.g. low five, hand slap, hand pile, potato fists, glove tap, etc.)
· Females performed …
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Personality and touch (e.g., instrumental vs. autotelic need for touch)
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· “Need for touch” = preference for extraction and utilization of information obtained through the haptic system
o 2 Dimensions:
§ INSTRUMENTAL: outcome-directed issues associated with a purchasing goal
§ AUTOTELIC: touch as an end in and of itself; hedonic-oriented respo…
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How does touch affect the brains of extraverts?
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EXTRAVERTS ARE ACTIVATED BY TOUCH
o Personality inventory
o Mechanical tactile stimulation to the index finger and 5th finger of subjects
o Extraversion was positively correlated with brain activation in the somatosensory cortex
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Three types of influence on others conveyed through touch (e.g., feel more positive about the toucher, etc.)
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o In the right setting, it can make people feel positive about the toucher
o It can help the recipient self-disclose and talk about him/herself
o People comply with requests more when lightly touched
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Touch and elicitation of talk, purchasing & spending, psychological well-being, mirror neurons
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o People who were touched left larger tips
o Touched from partnerè better mood in decoder
o Touchè better mood in encoder
o Receiving touch during 1 week è better psychological well-being 6 months later
o Magneto-encephalography
o Same part of the brain is activated w…
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Underlying assumption of Functional Approach
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o Multiple behaviors work together to produce the same functions (e.g., intimacy= gaze, touch, space, etc.)
§ Any given behavior can serve multiple functions
· Focus on social functions
· Determined through principled research
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2 primary functions of interpersonal/social behavior
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o PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF ANY SOCIAL BEHAVIOR:
§ Dominance/ control
§ Affiliation/ intimacy
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Patterson's 5 original functions
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Patterson's 5 original functions
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Other potential functions
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o Information
o Service-task
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Reasons for adopting a functional approach
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o Sensitizes us to discover all behaviors that serve a particular function (a multivariate approach)
o Recognize that individual behaviors can have multiple functions
o Organizes research on channels
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Ekman's Neurocultural Theory of Emotional Expression (e.g. elicitors, FAP, etc. how they are tied together)
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o Elicitors: environmental factors that produce the emotional state
o Facial affect program: brain function that triggers facial muscles
o Display rules: cultural, personal, situational factors that modify the conditions that elicit emotion or its expression
o Behavioral Cong…
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Consequences of display rules
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· Intensify
· Attenuate
· Neutralize
· Mask
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Are emotion elicitors specific to cultures? (Any arguments or examples?)
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· Yes, emotions are expressed differently from culture to culture
· Cultural upbringings influence how anger or grief
· Example: How people act in mourning at a funeral, sadness or celebration
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Which is universal/culture specific: the expression of emotion, the experience of emotion?
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· Gold medal winners displayed Duchenne smile
· Most silver medal winners displayed sadness, sadness-smile blend, forced smiles, or contempt
· Regardless of culture of athlete
SMILES & FROWNS ARE INNATE, NOT LEARNED
· Blind athleteè expressed facial express…
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The facial feedback hypothesis
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o External facial displays affect internal emotional state (Darwin, 1872)
o Intense posing and concealment of pain from shock (Lanzetta)
o Physiological response is diminished by attempts to conceal
o Spontaneous vs. posed (+) and (-) facial expressions (Kraut, 1982)
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Emotional expression in infants (can preterm infants display facial expressions of emotion? Do very young infants imitate emotional expression in others? for all emotions?)
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o Infant facial muscles capable of assuming many expressions
o Imitation (even in pre-term infants)
o Judges can correctly identify model’s facial display based on facial reaction of infant
o Smile, sad present @ birth, fear, anger, surprise come later
o Infants don’t sow…
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Internalizer/externalizer, low expressive/high expressive, more/less physiologically aroused
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o Differences in expressivity
o Low expressive= internalizer
o High expressive= externalizer
o Internalizerè more physiologically aroused
o Externalizerè less physiologically aroused
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Different nonverbal channels to convey different emotions
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o Communicate different emotional states to a life-sized, human-like mannequin dressed in a t-shirt and sweat pants
o People use different channels for different emotions
o Touch: most with love or sympathy, least with guilt, shame, anger, disgust, or fear
o Face and Body use…
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What are some of the nonverbal signals of love?
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o Affirmative head nods
o Duchenne smiles
o Forward lean (toward partner)
o Hand gestures
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How sensitive is nonverbal vs. verbal behavior to the quality of a relationship?
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o Couples can fake happiness or distress verbally, but their nonverbal behaviors reveal the true state of their relationship
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GAZE AND INTIMACY
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· Couples who score high on romantic love scales exhibit a lot of mutual gaze (Rubin)
· Need for affiliation is positively correlated with mutual gaze (Exline)
· Better adjusted married couples exhibit more mutual gaze than distressed couples (Noller)
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SPEECH RATE AND INTIMACY
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· Fewer and shorter pauses
· Faster speech rate
· Matching partner’s vocal cues
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PITCH AND INTIMACY
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· Men raised pitch when talking to romantic partner vs. friend
· Women lowered pitch when talking to romantic partner vs. friend
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GESTURE AND INTIMACY
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· In positive, friendly interactions, people exhibit more object focused gestures and fewer body focused gestures (Freedman)
· We also use more illustrators when interacting with friendly others
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POSTURE AND INTIMACY
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· More forward lean
· Direct shoulder/body orientation
· Greater postural mimicry
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SMILES AND INTIMACY
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· Not a very reliable sign of intimacy and involvement
· Some people smile more in negative situations than in positive ones (e.g., phony smiles)
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How are talk rate, talk duration, and gaze related to perceptions of attractiveness?
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GAZE AND INITIAL ATTRACTION
· All participants initially attracted to the face of opposite sex models (esp. women)
· Women shift attention to legs
· Men shift attention to chest
TALK RATE
· Those attracted to each other will talk at same rate and speak s…
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What type of touch is viewed as communicating attraction, love, etc.
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· Touch to face= most affection, attraction, & love
· Touch to waist and forearm show high romantic attraction
· …but most indicative of harassment
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Relationship closeness and decoding nonverbal behaviors
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o nonverbals than strangers are
o Close friends performed worse than acquaintances at decoding partners’ negative affect when partners attempted to disguise their negative emotion (e.g., sadness and anger)
o Close friends performed worse than strangers in this condition!
o Mo…
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Postural/motor mimicry
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o Role taking
o Empathy
o Communication
o Nonconscious mimicry creates affiliation and affiliation can create nonconscious mimicry
o This played an important part in human evolution
o Important for group members to feel a sense of psychological connection with each ot…
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Is there an interactive phenomenon associated with nonverbal intimacy behaviors in children?
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oYES
Mothers and infants synchronize facial expressiveness, gross body movements, and vocalizations
o Street & Cappella (1989) found 4-6 year old children converge to the speech rate and the response latency of an adult who interacted with them
o This reciprocity is associated…
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Smooth transition
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o 50% of all turns that occur in conversations are smooth
o a “smooth turn transition” occurs when the floor switches from person A to person B without a perceptible pause
o These turns transitions occur in less than 250 ms
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Simultaneous turns vs. simultaneous talk
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· Simultaneous turns: when both participants claim the speaking turn at the same time
o Condition 1: Occur absence of a yielding cue / or the speaker
o Condition 2: Speaker emits a turn yielding cue but continues to talk
· Simultaneous talk: both speakers are making u…
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Turn yielding cues
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o Change in intonation (drop or rise)
o Sociocentric sequence
§ Culture specific phrase that has no value other than to signal transition, YA KNOW tag on meaningless phrase to signal end of speech
o Drawl
§ Extension of ending word
o Termination of gestures
o Drop…
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Turn holding cues
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v
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Backchannels
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· Listeners participate in conversation via backchannels (i.e., brief gestures, vocalizations, head nods, etc.)
· Backchannel elicited in “gaze window”
· Backchannels do not constitute a turn or claim to a turn
· Backchannels are used to AVOID taking the floor…
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The gaze window
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· Where back channeling is elicited, and eye contact is made
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Turn requesting cues
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o Backchannels (according to Wiemann)
o Speaker directed gaze
o Audible inhalation
o Forward lean
o Gesture
o A stutter start
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What is an interruption? What factors influence the success or likelihood of interruptions? Is there an interactive
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o To take the floor in the absence of turn yielding cues
o Different from simultaneous speech
o Simultaneous speech is not the same as an interruption
o Attempted vs. successful interruptions
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Turn requesting cues
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o Backchannels (according to Wiemann)
o Speaker directed gaze
o Audible inhalation
o Forward lean
o Gesture
o A stutter start
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What is an interruption? What factors influence the success or likelihood of interruptions? Is there an interactive
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o To take the floor in the absence of turn yielding cues
o Different from simultaneous speech
o Simultaneous speech is not the same as an interruption
o Attempted vs. successful interruptions
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Effect for interruptions?
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o People attempt to maintain the floor after an attempted interruption by increasing loudness
o Success depends upon giving out the lowest number of turn yielding cues and the most turn requesting cues
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Sex differences in interruptions?
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o Men do not interrupt any more than women did
o Women do not get interrupted any more than men
o There were more opposite sex interruptions, both MèF and FèM, than same sex
o Women smiled, agreed, nodded and laughed more in response to interruption than med
o This shows …
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Interruption and perceptions of status
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· People who are interrupted
· People who get interrupted rated themselves as less influential in the conversation
· Interrupters, esp. female, are perceived as less likable
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Different types of interruptions and reactions to them
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· Deep and/ or intrusive interruptions are more aggressive; they threaten the “territory” of the speaker by means of topic-changing, floor-taking, or disagreement
· But sometimes people interrupt to express agreement with the speaker (supportive interruptions)
· Gnisi…
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COMM 415: Quiz 2