502 Cards in this Set
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Systematics
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is the scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships
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Taxonomy
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is the science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms
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classification
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means arranging organisms into groups based on similarities that reflect evolutionary relationships among lineages
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The binomial system of nomenclature
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is classification in which each species is assigned a unique two part name
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Genus-
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closely related species
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taxon
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is a formal grouping of organisms at any given level
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Kingdom prokaryotae
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made to accomadate bacteria which are different than all organisms
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cladogram
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is one of these trees but to illustrate evolutionary relationship between groups of organisms
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Domain
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is based on fundamental molecular differences among the bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes
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Horizontal Gene Transfer
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is when gene swap from two taxon’s of related organisms
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Phylogen
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(“production of phyla”) is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms from a common ancestor
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homology
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refers to the prescence, in 2 or more species, of a structure derived from a recent ancestor
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Convergent Evolution
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is independent evolution of similar structures in distantly related organisms
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Reversal Homology
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is when a trait reverts to its ancestral state
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Plesiomorphies
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or shared ancestral characters are features that were present in ancestor and remain present in descendants
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Synapormorphies
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or shared derived characters are the independent evolution of traits
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Molecular Systematics
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focuses on molecular structure to clarify evolutionary relationships
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Molecular Clocks
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is what specific macromolecules in DNA are referred to because they provide life span
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Monophyletic Taxon
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includes several ancestral species and all descendants
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Sister Taxa
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or sister groups share recent common ancestor with one another
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Paraphyletic taxon
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group that contains common ancestor and some but not all descendants
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Polyphyletic Group
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consists of several evolutionary lines that don’t share recent ancestor
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Cladistics
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or phylogentic systematics is approach where derived characteristics are analyzed and used to infer other relationships
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root
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indicates most recent ancestor
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Outgroup analysis
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is a method for estimating which attributes are shared in group of organisms
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Outgroup
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is a taxon that is considered to have diverged earlier than the ingroups
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Phylogram
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provides information about relative number of mutations that occur through lineage
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Ultrametric Tree
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is rooted and the tips are equal distant from root
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Maximum likelihood
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is also used especially in molecular data
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virus
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or virion is a tiny infectious particle consisting of a nucleic acid core (genetic material) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid
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The Lytic Reproductive Cycle
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is cycle when virus destroys host cells
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Attachment or absorption-
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virus attaches to receptors on host cells, ensures infection of specific host
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Penetration-
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virus penetrates plasma membrane and moves to cytoplasm.
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Replication and Synthesis-
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viral genome contains info to produce new viruses.
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Assembly-
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new synthesized viral components are assembled into viruses
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Release-
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new viruses are released from cell.
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Restriction Enzymes
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are enzymes that cut up foreign DNA of the phage
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Temperate Viruses
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don’t always destroy host
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Retrovirus
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are RNA viruses that have a DNA polymerase called Reverse Transcriptase which is used to transcribe the RNA genome into a DNA intermediate
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HIV (human Immunodefiency Virus)
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is a retrovirus
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A Viroid
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is a infective agent that is smaller than a virus and has no protein coat
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A Prion
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is a protein particle and infective agent called “proteinaceous infectious particle”
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Cocci
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occur singly in some species and in groups of independent cells
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Bacilli
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occur as single rods or long chains
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Horizontal Gene Transfer
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occurs when organism transfers genetic material to another organism that is not offspring
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Transformation
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a bacterial cell takes up fragments of foreign DNA released by another bacterium
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Transduction
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is another gene transfer method where a phage carries bacterial genes from one bacteria into another
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Conjugation
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is where two cells of different mating types come together and genetic material is transferred
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Donor cells-
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F+, recipient cells F- are cells in Ecoli
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phototrophs
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(get energy from capturing light)
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Methanogens
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are methane producers that are large diverse group that inhabit oxygen free environments
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Extreme Halophiles
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are heterotrophs that live in saturated brine solutions like salt ponds
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Extreme Thermophiles
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require high temperature for growth nad inhabit acidic environments
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Symbiosis
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is the relationship between two members of two or more species
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Mutualism
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is a symbiotic relationship in which both partners benefit
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Commensalism
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where one partner benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped
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Parasitism
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one partner lives on or in the other
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parasite
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benefits and the host is harmed
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Microbiota
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is a population of microorganisms that are harmless symbiotic prokaryotes
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Koch’s Postulates
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is used to demonstrate that a specific pathogen causes a specific disease symptom
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Exotoxins
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are strong poisons that some bacteria produce that leak out when cell is destroyed releasing disease
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Endotoxin
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are not secreted by pathogens but are components of the cell wall of most gran negative bacteria
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R Factors
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are plasmids that have genes for antibiotic resistance
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Biomediation
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is a process in which a contaminated site is exposed to microorganisms that break down the toxins, leaving behind harmless metabolic products like carbon dioxide and chlorides
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Protists
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are unicellular, colonial, or simple multicellular organisms that have a eukaryotic cell organization
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Ultrastructure
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is the fine details of cell structure revealed by electron microscopy
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Monophyletic
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taxa have a common ancestor
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Zooflagellates
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are mostly heterotrophic, unicellelular organisms with spherical or elongated bodies
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excavates
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are endosymbionts and live in anoxic (without oxygen) environments
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Trichonymphs
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are specialized excavates with hundreds of flagella that live in the guts of termites
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Discicristates
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are zooflagellates named for their disc shape cristae
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euglenoids
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are unicellular flagellates and a third of them are photosynthetic
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Trypanosomes
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are colorless discicristates, many of which are parasitic and cause disease
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Ciliates
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are one of the most complex eukaryotic cells
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Dinoflagellates
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are unicellular and have 2 flagella, they are photosynthetic and have chlorophyll carotenoids including fucoxanthin , a yellow cartenoid
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Apicomplexans
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are a large group of parasitic, spore forming alveolates, some which cause diease in humans
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Heterokonts
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include water molds, diatoms, golden algae, and brown algae
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Water Molds
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were once classified as fungi, both have a body called a mycelium that grows over organic material.
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Diatoms
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are unicellular algae, there are 2 types; one with radial symmetry and other with bilateral symmetry
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Golden algae
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are found in both fresh and marine environments
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Brown Algae
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include the giants of the protists kingdom, they are largest most complex of all algae, called kelps
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Monophyletic group
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of plants include red algae and green algae
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Red algae
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is multicellular, body is interwoven filaments
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Green algae
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have pigments, energy reserve products, and cell walls
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Anisogamous
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sexual reproduction involves the fusion of 2 gamates of different sizes
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Cercozoa
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are amoeboid cells that often have hard outer shells called tests through which cytoplasmic projections extend
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Foraminiferans
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are marine cercozoa that produce elaborate tests
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Actinopods
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are marine plankton cercozoa with long cytoplasmic projections called axopods that protrude through pores in shell
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Amoebozoa
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produce temporary cytoplasmic projections called pseudopodia (false foot) at some point in life cycle
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Amoebas
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are unicellular amoebozoa are found in soil, fresh water, the ocean and other organisms
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Cellular slime molds
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are amoebozoa close to amebas
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Opisthokonts
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are monophyletic group that includes members of 3 kingdoms: protista, fungi, animalia
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Mycologists
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are biologists who study fungi, identified 2 types based on body plan: yeats and molds
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Coenocytic
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fungi lack septa
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Sporangia
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are structures in which spores are produced
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Conidiophores
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are specialized hyphae that produce asexual spores called conidia
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Fungi
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are eukaryotic heterotrophs that secrete digestive enzymes to digest food
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Perforated septa
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, or cross walls, divide the hyphae into individual cells
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Karyogamy,
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fusion of nuclei, takes place in the hyphal tip and results in a diplod (2n) zygote nucleus
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Chytrids
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or chytridiomycetes produce flagellate cells at some stage in life cycle
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Zygomycetes
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, like black bread mold, form haploid thallus that produces both asexual spores and sexual spores
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Asexual
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germinate to make new thalli
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Sexual,
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2 different haploid mating types (PAGE 578 READ)
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Gametangia
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are the sex organs of most multicellelar fungus, algae are unicellellar
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In plants
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the fertilized egg develops into a multicellular embryo (young plant) within female genetalia
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Alternation of generations
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is the plant life cycle in which they psend part of life in haploid gamete generation and other half in diploid sporophyte generation
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Ferns
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are most diverse group, consist of rhizome that bears fronds and true roots
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Whisk ferns
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have dichotomously branching rhizomes and erect stems, lack true roots
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Horsetails
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have roots, rhizomes, aerial stems that are hollow and jointed and leaved that are reduced megaphylls
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Homospory
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is the production of one kind of spore, is most common bryophyte
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Heterospory
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is the production of 2 kinds of spores (micro and mega spores) and occurs in certain club mosses
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Conifers-
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is largest phylum and are wooden plants that bear needles and produce seeds in cones
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Cycads-
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are palm and fern like in appearance
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Ginkgo bilboa-
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is a deciduous tree, in which its female ginkgo produces flashy seeds directly from branches
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Gnetophytes-
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share number of traits with angiosperms
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Flowering plants
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or angiosperms, make phylum of vascular plants that produce flowers and seeds enclosed in a fruit (most successful group)
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Monocots
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have floral parts in threes and their seeds each contain 1 cotyledon , the nutritive tissue in their mature seeds is endosperm
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Eudicots
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usually have floral parts in 4 or 5’s and seeds contain 2 cotyledons
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Annuals
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are herbaceous plants that grow, reproduce, and die in 1 year or less
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Biennials
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take 2 years to complete life cycle
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Perennials
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are woody plants that a potential to live 2 or more years
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Dormancy
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is when organism reduces metabolic rate to a minimum to survive bad conditions
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woody perennials are deciduous
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where they shed their leaves before winter to produce new stems and new leaves later
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Root system
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is underground and gets water and minerals for plant, also keep plant in place
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Shoot system
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is aerial and gets sunlight and exchanged gases like co2 and oxygen
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Ground tissue system
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consists of 3 tissues
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Parenchyma
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tissue is composed of living parenchyma cells that have primary cell walls
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Collenchyma
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tissue consists of collenchyma cells with unevenly thickened primary cell walls, tissue provides structural support
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Sclerenchyma
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tissue is composed of cells sclereids or fibers that both have primary cell walls and secondary cell walls
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Vascular tissue system
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conducts materials throughout plant body and provides support
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Sieve tube elements
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are conducting cells of phloem
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Dermal tissue system
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is outer protective covering of plant body
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Trichomes
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are outgrowths or hairs that occure in many sizes and have variety of functions
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Periderm
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is complex tissue that covers woody parts of plant
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Primary
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is increased in stem or root growth
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Secondary
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is increase in stem or root girth only occurs in long cylinders of meristematic cells through length of older stems or roots
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Stomata
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are small pores in epidermis that permit gass exchange during photosynthesis
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Mesophyll
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consists of photosynthetic parenchyma cells.
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Monocot
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leaves have parallel venation where eudicot have netted venation
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Blue light
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which is a component of sunlight, triggers activation of proton pumps located in guard cell of plasma membrane
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Transpiration
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is the loss of water vapor from aerial parts of plants, occurs primarily in stomata
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Guttation
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is the release of liquid water from leaves
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Leaf abscission
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is loss of leaves that occurs as winter approaches or at beginning of dry period
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Abscission zone
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develops where the petiole detaches from the stem
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Spines
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are leaves adapted to deter herbivores
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Tendrils
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are modified for grasping and holding other structures (support weak stems)
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Bud scales
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are modified to protect delicate meristematic tissue or dormant buds
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Bulbs
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are short underground stems with fleshy leaves specialized for storage
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Buds
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are underdeveloped embryonic shoots
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Terminal buds
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are located at tip of stem where as axillary buds (lateral buds) are located in leaf axils
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Node
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is the area on stem where leaf is attached
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Leaf scar
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shows where each leaf was attached to stem
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Bundle scars
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are areas within leaf scar where vascular tissue extended from stem to leaf
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Lenticels
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are sites of loosely arranged cells that allow oxygen to diffuse into interior of woody stem
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Vascular cambium
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is lateral meristem that produces secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem (inner bark)
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Secondary growth
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(production of secondary tissues, wood, and bark) occurs in some flowering plants and all cone bearing gymnosperms
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Water potential
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is a measure of free energy of water
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Tension cohesion model
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explains that the evaporative pull of transpiration causes tension at top of plant
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Root pressue
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, caused by movement of water into roots from soil as result of active absorption of mineral ions from the soil explains rise of water in smaller plants (particulary with wet soil)
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Taproot
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system has one main root from which roots extend from
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Fibrous root
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has several adventitious roots of the same size developing from the end of the stem
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Epidermis
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protects the root, root hairs , are short lived extensions of epidermal cells, aid in absorption of water and minerals
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Cortex
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consists of cells that store starch.
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Endodermis
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is innermost layer of cortex which regulates movement of water and minerals into root xylem
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Pericycle
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gives rise to lateral roots and lateral meristems
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Xylem
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conducts water and minerals
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Phloem
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conduscts sugar
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Cork cambium
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produces periderm (outer bark)
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Prop roots
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develop from branches or a vertical stem to grow downward into soil to help support certain plants
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Buttress roots
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are swollen bases or braces that support certain tropical rainforest trees that have shallow root system
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Pneumatophores
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are aerial “breathing” roots that may assist in getting oxygen to submerged roots
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Mycorrhizae
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are mutually beneficial associations between roots and soil fungi
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Root nodules
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are swellings that develop on roots of leguminous plants and house millions of rhixobia (nitrogen bacteria)
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CATIONS
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, positively charged mineral ions, are attracted and reversibly bound to clay particle which have a predominatly negative charges on outer surfaces
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cation exchange
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roots secrete protons which are exchanged for other positively charged minerals ions freeing them into the soil water to be absorbed by roots
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Micronutrients
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are 9 of the elements: sodium, zinc, chlorine, iron, boran, magganese, copper, nickel, and molybdenum
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Soil erosion
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is the removal of soil by acts of agents such as water and wind
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Sepals
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cover and protect the flower parts when it is in bud
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Petals
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play role in attracting animal pollinators to flower
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Stamens
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produce pollen grains
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Carpel
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is the female reproductive unit
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A Pistil
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is made of a single carpel or group of fused carpels
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Stigma
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where pollen and grain land
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Style
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through which the pollem tubes grow
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Ovary
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which contains one or more vacuoles
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egg and 2 polar nuclei
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, along with other nonpolar nuclei are formed into a ovule
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Insect Pollinated
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are often yellow or blue and have a scent
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Bird Pollinated
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are often yellow, orange, or red and don’t have strong scent
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Bat Pollinated
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often have dusky white petals and are scented
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Wind Pollinated
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often have smaller petals or lack of petals and have no scent of nectar
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Coevolution
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is recirocal adaptation caused by 2 different species (flower and animal pollinators) forming interdependent relationship that affects the course of both evolution
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Pollination
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Pollination
is the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
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Fertilization
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is after pollination in which the 2 gametes fuse together
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Double Fertilization
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happens when in flower’s ovule egg fuses with 1 sperm forming a zygote (fertilized egg)
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Zygote
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eventually develops into a multicellular embryo in the seed
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The 2 polar nuclei
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fuse with the second sperm cell forming a triploid nutritive tissue called a endosperm
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A Eudicot Embryo
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develops in the seed in orderly fasion, from proembryo to globular embryo to heart stage to torpedo tage
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A Seed Coat
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surrounds the seed
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Ovules
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are structures with potential to develop into seeds
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Ovaries
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are structure with the potential to develop into fruits
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Seeds
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are enclosed within the fruits which are mature ripened ovaries
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Simple Fruits
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develop from a single ovary that consists of one carpel or several fused carpels
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Aggregate fruits
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develop from a single flower with many separate ovaries
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Multiple fruits
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develop from the ovaries of many flowers growing in close areas together on common axis bc of sun
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Accessory fruits
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is the major part of the fruit consists of tissue other than ovary tissue
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Germination
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is the process of seed sprouting because of internal factors affecting the descion to germinate or not
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Factors
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include maturity of embryo, prescence of lack there of of chemical inhibitors, prescnce of lack of of hard, thick seed coats
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External Environmental
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factors include required oxygen, water, temperature and light
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Rhizomes, Tubers, Bulbs, Corms and Stolons
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are stems specialized for asexual reproduction
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Tuber
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is the fleshy underground stem enlarged for food storage
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Bulb
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is a modified underground bud with fleshy storage leaves attached to a short stem
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Corm
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is a short erect underground stem covered by papery scales
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Stolon
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is a horizontal above ground stem with long internodes
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Apomixes
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is the production of seeds and fruits without sexual reproduction
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Sexual Reproduction
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involves the union of 2 gametes
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Asexual Reproduction
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involves formation of offspring without fusion of gametes
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Tropisms
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are directional growth responses
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Phototropism
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is growth response to the direction of light
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Gravitropism
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is growth response to the influence of gravity
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Thigmotropism
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is growth response to contact with solid object
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Enzyme-linked receptors
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are what plant hormones bind to
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Auxin
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involved with cell elongation; tropisms
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Apical dominance
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is the inhibition of axillary buds by the apical meristem and fruit development
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Gibberellins
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are involved in stem elongation, flowering, and germination
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Cytokinins
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promote cell division and differentiation
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senescence
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which is the natural aging process; it interacts with auxin and ethylene in apical dominance
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Ethylene
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plays role in ipening fruits; apical dominance; leaf abscission; wound response
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Thigmomorphogensis
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is a developmental response to mechanical stressors like wind and senescence
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Abscisic Acid
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is a environmental stress hormone involved in stomatal closure caused by water sress and in seed dormancy (temporary state of reduced physiological activity)
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Brassinosteroids
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are involved in several aspects of plant growth and development such as
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Jasmonates
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affect several plant processes such as
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Salicylic Acid
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triggers systematic acquired resistance that helps defend plants against pathogens and isect pests
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systematic acquired resistance
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that helps defend plants against pathogens and isect pests
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Systemin
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is polypeptide stimulates a natural defense mechanism in which the plant produces molecules that disrupt insect digestion
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Oliogosaccharins
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are short branched chains of sugar molecule which inhibit flowering and stimulates vegetative growth
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Photoperiodism
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is any response of plants to the duration and timing of light and dark
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Short day plants
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detect the lengthening nghts of late summer and flower at that time
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Intermediate day plants
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flower when exposed to days and nights of intermediate length
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chrome
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has 2 forms Pr and Pfr named for wavelength they absorb
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Pfr
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is the active form, triggering or inhibiting physiological responses like flowering, shade avoidance , and light requirement for germination
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Signal Transduction
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is the oathway that starts it, when phytochrome in cytoplasm absorbs red light and is converted to active form Pfr which goes into nucleus
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Circadian rhythm
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is a regular period in organisms growth that approximates a 24 hour day and is rest by rising and setting sun
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Ex.
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Opening and closing of stomata and sleep movements
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CHAPTER 23- UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY: SYSTEMATICS (pg 482)
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OVERVIEW
CLASSYFYING ORGANISMS
MAJOR BRANCHES IN TREE OF LIFE
RECONCSTRUCTING PHYLOGENY
CONSTRUCTING PHYLOGENTIC TREES
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CLASSYFYING ORGANISMS
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Systematics is the scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships
Term classification means arranging organisms into groups based on similarities that reflect evolutionary relationships among lineages
Organisms are named using the binomial system
Ea…
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Systematics is the scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships
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Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms
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Organisms are named using the binomial system
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The binomial system of nomenclature is classification in which each species is assigned a unique two part name
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The binomial system of nomenclature is classification in which each species is assigned a unique two part name
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First part of name is genus
Second part of name is specific epithet
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Each taxonomic level of organisms is more general than the level below it
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As you move up hierarchy each group is more inclusive
The range from species to domain is order
A taxon is a formal grouping of organisms at any given level
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The range from species to domain is order
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Genus- closely related species
Family -> orders -> classes -> phyla-> kingdoms-> domains
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Biologists are beginning to move away from linnean categories because its to hard to make names
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One group of biologists has proposed a clissification called PhyloCode
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One group of biologists has proposed a clissification called PhyloCode
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Based on evolutionary relationships, ranks are not used, a species is defined as a segment of a population lineage
Organisms would be grouped in Clades . A clade is a group of organisms with a common ancestor
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MAJOR BRANCHES IN TREE OF LIFE
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In beginning biologists divided organisms into kingdoms Plantae and animalia
A third kingdom protista was made for bacteria and other microorganisms
Fungi was made a kingdom after because fungi are not photosynthetic so not a plant
Kingdom prokaryotae made to accomadate bacteria which …
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Kingdom prokaryotae made to accomadate bacteria which are different than all organisms
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They divded prokayotae into kingdoms bacteria and archaea
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Phylogen (“production of phyla”) is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms from a common ancestor
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Population is individuals of same species in specific area
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A homology refers to the prescence, in 2 or more species, of a structure derived from a recent ancestor
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Wings between bird and bat
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CONSTRUCTING PHYLOGENTIC TREES
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In a Phenetic Approach relationships are based on number of shared characterists
Cladistics or phylogentic systematics is approach where derived characteristics are analyzed and used to infer other relationships
In a cladogram the branches depict evolutionary history of each group
The …
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In a cladogram the branches depict evolutionary history of each group
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Each branch point is called a node is the split of more groups
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Outgroup analysis is a method for estimating which attributes are shared in group of organisms
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A Outgroup is a taxon that is considered to have diverged earlier than the ingroups
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The principle of Parsimony is when biologists choose simplest explanation to interpret data
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Maximum likelihood is also used especially in molecular data
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CHAPTER 24- VIRUSES AND PROKARYOTES (pg 500)
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OVERVIEW
VIRUSES
VIROIDS AND PRIONS
PROKARYOTES
TWO PROKARYOTE DOMAINS
IMPACT OF PROKARYOTES
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Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites which means they can only survive on host cells
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A virus can contain either DNA or RNA
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The Lytic Reproductive Cycle is cycle when virus destroys host cells
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Viruses with only a lytic cycle are called virulent meaning they cause disease and often death
There are 5 steps
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There are 5 steps
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Attachment or absorption- virus attaches to receptors on host cells, ensures infection of specific host
Penetration- virus penetrates plasma membrane and moves to cytoplasm.
Replication and Synthesis- viral genome contains info to produce new viruses. Virus degrades host’s nucleic acid …
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Restriction Enzymes are enzymes that cut up foreign DNA of the phage
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Protects its own DNA by slightly modifying it after replication
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In a Lysogenic Cycle the viral genome becomes integrated in host bacteria DNA and is then called a provirus or prophage
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When bacterial DNA replicates the provirus also replicates
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A Retrovirus are RNA viruses that have a DNA polymerase called Reverse Transcriptase which is used to transcribe the RNA genome into a DNA intermediate
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The virus RNA then becomes integrated into the real DNA and takes over
HIV (human Immunodefiency Virus) is a retrovirus
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VIROIDS AND PRIONS
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A Viroid is a infective agent that is smaller than a virus and has no protein coat
A Prion is a protein particle and infective agent called “proteinaceous infectious particle”
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A Prion is a protein particle and infective agent called “proteinaceous infectious particle”
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Prions are found in brain of patients with TSE or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
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Unlike viruses, viroids and prions prokaryotes are cellular organisms
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Assigned to 2 domains Archaea and Bacteria
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Prokaryotes have 2 basic shapes spherical (COCCI) and road shaped (BACILLI)
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Cocci occur singly in some species and in groups of independent cells
Bacilli occur as single rods or long chains
Some for spirals or spirochete is flexible and spirillum is rigid
A spirillum shaped like a comma is called a vibrio
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Most have a cell wall surrounding plasma membrane, it provides support, shape, and no bursting
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The bacterial cell wall includes peptidoglycan , a complex polymer of 2 types of sugar liked by polypeptides
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Bacterial wall composition is found by staining the wall. Bacteria that absorb and retain the violet stain are called gram- positive . Walls that do not retain stain are called gram- negative
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Postive walls are thick where as negative wall has 2 layers, (thin inside layer, thick outside membrane)
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A prokaryotes move by rotating their flagella , number and location of flagella help classify bacteria
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Many prokaryotes show chemotaxis , a movement in response to chemicals in the environment
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Most prokaryotes reproduce with Binary Fission , a process in which one cell divides in 2 similar cells
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Less common Asexual reproduction with bacteria is Budding . Cell develops a bulge or bud that eventually separate
Only a few bacteria divide by fragmentation where walls develop within cell and then separates into new cells
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The exhange of genes between bacteria is gene transfer and results in genetic recombination
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Horizontal Gene Transfer occurs when organism transfers genetic material to another organism that is not offspring
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Horizontal Gene Transfer occurs when organism transfers genetic material to another organism that is not offspring
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From parent to offspring is Vertical Gene Transfer
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Conjugation is where two cells of different mating types come together and genetic material is transferred
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Donor cells- F+, recipient cells
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Donor cells- F+, recipient cells
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are cells in Ecoli
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When environment becomes to harsh some bacteria will become dormant. Some bacteria form dormant extremely durable cells called endospores
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Many types of bacteria that inhabit watery environments form dense films called biofilms that attach to solid surface
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Some bacteria are autotrophs that use carbon dioxide as source of carbon for manufacture of organic molecules
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Prokaryotes are classified as Chemotrophs (get energy from chemical compounds) and phototrophs (get energy from capturing light)
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Most bacterial cells are aerobic and require oxygen for cellular respiration
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Many are facultative anaerobes that use oxygen for cellular respiration if it is available but can carry on metabolism anaerobically when necessary
Other bacteria are Obligate Anaerobes that carry out anaerobic respiration
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TWO PROKARYOTE DOMAINS
|
There are 2 different groups of prokaryotes, each group has signture sequences which are regions of rRNA that have unique nucleotide sequences
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There are 2 different groups of prokaryotes, each group has signture sequences which are regions of rRNA that have unique nucleotide sequences
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Methanogens are methane producers that are large diverse group that inhabit oxygen free environments
Extreme Halophiles are heterotrophs that live in saturated brine solutions like salt ponds
Extreme Thermophiles require high temperature for growth nad inhabit acidic environments
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IMPACT OF PROKARYOTES
|
Symbiosis is the relationship between two members of two or more species
Microbiota is a population of microorganisms that are harmless symbiotic prokaryotes
Koch’s Postulates is used to demonstrate that a specific pathogen causes a specific disease symptom
Exotoxins are strong poisons…
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Symbiosis is the relationship between two members of two or more species
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Partners in a symbiotic relationsip are called symbionts
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both partners benefit
Commensalism where one partner benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped
Parasitism one partner lives on or in the other
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Parasitism one partner lives on or in the other
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The parasite benefits and the host is harmed
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CHAPTER 25- PROTISTS (pg 530)
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OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION TO PROTISTS
EVOLUTION OF EUKARYOTES
REPRESENTATIVE PROTISTS
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INTRODUCTION TO PROTISTS
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Most protists are unicellular with each cell forming a complete organism capable of performing all characteristics of life
Some protists form colonies which are loosely connected groups of cells
Some are multicellular composed of many cells
Although most protists are free living some f…
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Some protists form colonies which are loosely connected groups of cells
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Some colonies are coenocytic consisting of a multinucleate mass of cytoplasm
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Although most protists are free living some form symbiotic relationships with others
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These associations range from mutualism a more or less equal partnership to commensalisms where one partner benefits and the other is unaffected
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EVOLUTION OF EUKARYOTES
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Ultrastructure is the fine details of cell structure revealed by electron microscopy
Monophyletic taxa have a common ancestor
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Zooflagellates are mostly heterotrophic, unicellelular organisms with spherical or elongated bodies
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They move rapidly with whiplike flagella located at the front end
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Most excavates are endosymbionts and live in anoxic (without oxygen) environments
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One group of modern day excavates are diplomonads which retain some characteristics thought to have been present in ancient protists
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Ciliates are one of the most complex eukaryotic cells
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One group of these is hypotrichs , they have greatly modified cilia and move in darting motions
Special organelles called contractile vacuoles control water regulation in freshwater ciliates
Ciliates differ from other protists in having 2 kinds of nuclei.
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Ciliates differ from other protists in having 2 kinds of nuclei.
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1 or more small diploid micronuclei that function in reproduction
one larger polyploidy macronucleus that controls cell metabolism and growth
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Dinoflagellates are unicellular and have 2 flagella, they are photosynthetic and have chlorophyll carotenoids including fucoxanthin , a yellow cartenoid
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Most DINO are endosymbionts, these symbiotic are called zooxanthellae and lack cellulose plates and flagella
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Apicomplexans are a large group of parasitic, spore forming alveolates, some which cause diease in humans
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At some point in life cycle they produce sporozoites , small infective agents transmitted to next host
For this reason some call them sporozoa
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Heterokonts include water molds, diatoms, golden algae, and brown algae
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Water Molds were once classified as fungi, both have a body called a mycelium that grows over organic material. The mycelium is made up of hyphae , threadlike fibers
After fusion of male and female nuclei, thick walled oospores develop from the oospheres (female gamates)
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Golden algae are found in both fresh and marine environments
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Reproduction is Asexual and involves the production of biflagellate, motile spores called zoospores
Compose a significant portion of oceans nanoplankton , extremely minute algae
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Brown Algae include the giants of the protists kingdom, they are largest most complex of all algae, called kelps
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Many kelp have leaflike blades in which most photosynthesis occurs. Stemlike stipes and rootlike anchoring holdfasts also
Reproduction is varied and complex in brown algae, use both Asexual zoospores and sexual gamates
Most have life cycle that exhibits alternation of generations , in w…
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Monophyletic group of plants include red algae and green algae
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Red algae is multicellular, body is interwoven filaments
Chloroplasts of red contain phycoerythrin a red pigment and phycocyannin a blue pigment
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Green algae have pigments, energy reserve products, and cell walls
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Reproduction involves gamate formation in unicellular gametangia , reproductive structure in which gamates are produced
If the 2 falgellate gamates are identical in size and appearance, sexual reproduction is isogamous
Some green are oogamous and produce a nonmotile egg and a flagellate…
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If the 2 falgellate gamates are identical in size and appearance, sexual reproduction is isogamous
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Anisogamous sexual reproduction involves the fusion of 2 gamates of different sizes
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Foraminiferans are marine cercozoa that produce elaborate tests
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Some are preserved in the fossil record and are used as fossil index markers to help identify others
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Actinopods are marine plankton cercozoa with long cytoplasmic projections called axopods that protrude through pores in shell
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Some called radiolarians secrete elaborate glassy shells made of silica
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Cellular slime molds are amoebozoa close to amebas
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Some cycle causes them to congegrate by the thousands and as a unit its called pseudoplasmodium
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Fungi are eukaryotes, their cells contain membrane enclosed nuclei, mitochondria, and other membranous organelles
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The cell wall consists of complex carbs including chitin , a polymer that consists of subunits of nitrogen sugar
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DESCRIBE BODY PLAN OF FUNGUS
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Mycologists are biologists who study fungi, identified 2 types based on body plan: yeats and molds
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Mycologists are biologists who study fungi, identified 2 types based on body plan: yeats and molds
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Simplest fungi are yeasts which are unicellular with a round shape
Most fungi are molds, body is long filaments called hyphae
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Most fungi are molds, body is long filaments called hyphae
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First develops from a unicelleluar spore, as they grow form a mass known as a mycelium
In most fungi the hyphae are divided by walls called septa into individaual cells containing one or more nuclei
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DESCRIBE LIFE CYCLE OF TYPICAL FUNGUS, INCLUDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL
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Fungi reproduces by means of microscopic spores , which are reproductive cells that can develop new organisms
Sporangia are structures in which spores are produced
In sexual reproduction a process called plasmogamy is where two genetically compatible hyphae come together
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Fungi reproduces by means of microscopic spores , which are reproductive cells that can develop new organisms
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Can reproduce sexually or Asexually
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Sporangia are structures in which spores are produced
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Spores are produces by mitosis and then released into air
Conidiophores are specialized hyphae that produce asexual spores called conidia
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In sexual reproduction a process called plasmogamy is where two genetically compatible hyphae come together
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Resulting cell has 2 nuclei, the 2 haploid cells then fuse in process called karyogamy and results in zygote nucleus
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|
FUNGAL DIVERSITY
|
Some chytids undergo an alternation of generations where it spends part of life in multicellular haploid and other in diploid
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CHARACTERISTICS OF KINGDOM FUNGI
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Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophs that secrete digestive enzymes to digest food
Fungi are characterized by cell walls made of chitin
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BODY PLAN OF FUNGUS
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Fungus may be unicellular yeast or a filamentous multicellelular mold
Body of most multicellular consist of long threadlike filaments called hyphae that form tangled mass called mycelium
Perforated septa , or cross walls, divide the hyphae into individual cells
In fungi (zygomycetes an…
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LIFE CYCLE OF TYPICAL FUNGUS (SEXUAL REPRODUCTION)
|
Most fungi reproduce by means of spores , which are produced on aerial hyphae, when spore lands on good spot it germinates
When 2 different fungi mating types meet their hyphaes fuse in process called plasmogamy
Karyogamy, fusion of nuclei, takes place in the hyphal tip and results in a…
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When 2 different fungi mating types meet their hyphaes fuse in process called plasmogamy
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Cytoplasm fuses but nuclei is still separate
Fungi enters a dikaryotic (n + n) stage where new cells form with one of each nucleus
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Karyogamy, fusion of nuclei, takes place in the hyphal tip and results in a diplod (2n) zygote nucleus
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Meiosis takes place making 4 genetically different haploid nuclei
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|
ARGUMENT THAT FUNGI ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO ANIMALS
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Chytrids or chytridiomycetes produce flagellate cells at some stage in life cycle
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Chytrids or chytridiomycetes produce flagellate cells at some stage in life cycle
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No other fungli have flagella
Thus chytrids are earliest fungi to evolve from protist
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DESCRIBE LIFE CYCLE, AND GIVE EXAMPLES OF FUNGAL GROUPS
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Chytrids reproduce both sexual ways, their gamates and zoospores are flagellate
Zygomycetes , like black bread mold, form haploid thallus that produces both asexual spores and sexual spores
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Chytrids reproduce both sexual ways, their gamates and zoospores are flagellate
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A common chytrid spends part of life in multicellular haploid thallus and part as a multicellular diploid thallus
The haploid produces 2 flagellate gametes that fuse
Both plasmogamy and karyogamy occur producing flagellate zygote
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Zygomycetes , like black bread mold, form haploid thallus that produces both asexual spores and sexual spores
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Asexual germinate to make new thalli
Sexual, 2 different haploid mating types (PAGE 578 READ)
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EXPLAIN SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNGI AS DECOMPOSERS
|
They break down organic compounds in dead organisms, leaves, garbage, into nutrients that can be recycles
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|
DESCRIBE IMPORTANT ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF MYCORRHIZAE
|
Mycorrhizae are myutal relationships between fungi and the roots of plants
Fungus suppliues water and nutrients to plant and plant gives organic compounds needed to fungus
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DESCRIBE UNIQUE NATURE OF LICHEN
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Lichen is a symbiotic combnation of a fungus and a photoautotroph
Photo provides fungus with organic compounds, shelter, water
Lichen have 3 main growth stages; crustose, foliose, fruticose
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SUMMARIZE THE WAYS FUNGI IMPACT HUMANS ECONOMICALLY
|
Mushrooms can be used as foods
Yeasts are vital in production of beer and wine and bread
Certain fungi produce cheeses and soy sauce
Also used to make citric acid and other industrial chemicals
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|
SAY IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI TO BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. HOW DOES IT AFFECT PLANTS, HUMANS, AND WHAT DISEASES
|
Yeats are used as model organisms for research in molecular biology and genetics. Also used for control of insects
Used to make medicines including penicillin and antibiotics
Fungi are opportunistic pathogens in humans, can cause disease like athletes foot, ringworm, candidiasis, histop…
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CHAPTER 27- THE PLANT KINGDOM (SEEDLESS PLANTS)
|
ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS
NAME GREEN ALGAE GROUP FROM WHICH PLANTS ARE SAID TO HAVE DESCENDED
SUMMARIZE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH BRYOPHYTES FROM OTHER PLANTS
DESCRIBE 3 PHYLA OF BRYOPHYTES
DESCRIBE LIFE CYCLE OF MOSSES AND COMPARE TO GAMETOHYTE AND SPOROPHYTE GNERATIONS
DESCRIBE FEATURE…
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ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS
|
An important difference between plants and algae is a waxy cuticle that covers aerial portion of plant
Stomata are tiny pores which dot the surface of leaves
Gametangia are the sex organs of most multicellelar fungus, algae are unicellellar
Alternation of generations is the plant life …
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|
Gametangia are the sex organs of most multicellelar fungus, algae are unicellellar
|
In plants the fertilized egg develops into a multicellular embryo (young plant) within female genetalia
|
|
Alternation of generations is the plant life cycle in which they psend part of life in haploid gamete generation and other half in diploid sporophyte generation
|
During fertilization zygote is what these fused gamete are called
It then develops into a multicelleur embryo
|
|
NAME GREEN ALGAE GROUP FROM WHICH PLANTS ARE SAID TO HAVE DESCENDED
|
Plants probably arose from green algae called charophytes
This is based in part on molecular comparisons of DNA and RNA
|
|
SUMMARIZE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH BRYOPHYTES FROM OTHER PLANTS
|
Unlike land plants, bryophytes are nonvascular and lack xylem and phloem
|
|
Unlike land plants, bryophytes are nonvascular and lack xylem and phloem
|
They are only plants with dominant gametophyte generation
|
|
DESCRIBE 3 PHYLA OF BRYOPHYTES
|
Mosses (bryophyta) have gametophytes that are green plants that grow from a filamentous protonema
Liverworts (hepatophyta) have gametophytes that are flattened lobelike thalli others are leafy
Hornworts (anthocerophyta) have thalloid gametophytes
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|
DESCRIBE LIFE CYCLE OF MOSSES AND COMPARE TO GAMETOHYTE AND SPOROPHYTE GNERATIONS
|
Green moss gametophyte bears archegonia at top of plants
During fertilization sperm fuses with egg
Zygote grows into embryo that develops into moss sporophyte
Meiosis occurs within capsule of sporophyte to make spores
Spore germinates, grows into protonema that forms buds that develop…
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|
DESCRIBE FEATURES THAT IS DIFFERENT BETWEEN SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS AND ALGAE AND BRYOPHYTES
|
Seedless have several adaptations that algae and bryophytes lack including vascular tissues and domnant sporophyte generation
Reproduction in seedless depends on water as a transport medium for motile sperm cells
|
|
DESCRIBE 2 PHYLA OF SEEDLESS PLANTS
|
Sporophytes of club mosses consist of roots, rhizomes, erect branches, and leaves that are microphylls
Ferns are most diverse group, consist of rhizome that bears fronds and true roots
Whisk ferns have dichotomously branching rhizomes and erect stems, lack true roots
Horsetails have ro…
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Ferns are most diverse group, consist of rhizome that bears fronds and true roots
|
Also include whisk ferns and horsetails
|
|
DECRIBE LIFE CYCLE OF FERNS, COMPARE SPORO AND GAMETOPHYTE GENERATIONS
|
Fern have roots, rhizomes, leaves are megaphylls. Leaves bear clusters of sori
Meiosis in spoangia produces haploid
Fern gametophyte called prothallus develops from a haploid spore
|
|
COMPARE GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLES OF HOMOSPOROUS AND HETEROSPOROUS PLANTS
|
Homospory is the production of one kind of spore, is most common bryophyte
Heterospory is the production of 2 kinds of spores (micro and mega spores) and occurs in certain club mosses
|
|
Homospory is the production of one kind of spore, is most common bryophyte
|
spore gives rise to gametophyte plants which produce both egg and sperm cells
|
|
Heterospory is the production of 2 kinds of spores (micro and mega spores) and occurs in certain club mosses
|
Microspores give rise to male gametophyte which make sperm
Megaspore give rise to female to make egg
|
|
CHAPTER 28- PLANT KINGDOM (SEED PLANTS)
|
OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION TO SEED PLANTS
TRACE LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE AND COMPARE ITS SPORO AND GAMETOPHYTE GENERATIONS
SUMMARIZE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH GYMNOSPERM FROM BRYOPHYTES AND FERNS
NAME AND DESCRIBE 4 PHYLA OF GYMNOSPERMS
SUMMARIZE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH FLOWERING PLANTS FRO…
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|
3 reasons why seeds are better than spores
|
Seed contains multicell young plant with embryonic root, stem, and leaves already formed where as spore in single cell
Seed contains a abundant food supply
Seed is protected by seed coat that is thick and hard
|
|
INTRODUCTION TO SEED PLANTS
|
After fertilization an ovule develops in to a seed
Seed plants have integuments which are layers of sporophyte tissue that surround ovule
There are 2 groups of seed plants; gymnosperms and angiosperms
Both plants have vascular tissues xylem for conducting water and minerals and phloem …
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|
There are 2 groups of seed plants; gymnosperms and angiosperms
|
Gymnosperms produce seeds that are exposed on scales of cones- no wall protection
Angiosperm are flowering plants that produce seed within a fruit
|
|
TRACE LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE AND COMPARE ITS SPORO AND GAMETOPHYTE GENERATIONS
|
A pine tree is a mature sporophyte, heterosporous, and produce both kinds of seeds
After pollination the transfer of pollen to female cones, pollen tube grows through the megasporangium to the egg
After fertilization the zygote develops into embryo encased inside a seed
|
|
A pine tree is a mature sporophyte, heterosporous, and produce both kinds of seeds
|
Male cones produce microspores that develop into pollen grains to be carried by winds
Female produce megaspore , 1 for each 4 megaspore produced
|
|
SUMMARIZE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH GYMNOSPERM FROM BRYOPHYTES AND FERNS
|
Unlike bryo, gymnosperm are vascular plants that produce seeds. They also produce wind borne pollen grains
|
|
NAME AND DESCRIBE 4 PHYLA OF GYMNOSPERMS
|
Conifers- is largest phylum and are wooden plants that bear needles and produce seeds in cones
Cycads- are palm and fern like in appearance
Ginkgo bilboa- is a deciduous tree, in which its female ginkgo produces flashy seeds directly from branches
Gnetophytes- share number of traits wi…
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|
Conifers- is largest phylum and are wooden plants that bear needles and produce seeds in cones
|
Most are monoecious which have male and female reproductive parts in separate cones in same plant
|
|
Cycads- are palm and fern like in appearance
|
They are dioecious where they have male and female reproductive on separate plants but reproduce with pollen and seeds in cones
|
|
SUMMARIZE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH FLOWERING PLANTS FROM OTHER PLANTS
|
Flowering plants or angiosperms, make phylum of vascular plants that produce flowers and seeds enclosed in a fruit (most successful group)
|
|
Flowering plants or angiosperms, make phylum of vascular plants that produce flowers and seeds enclosed in a fruit (most successful group)
|
The flower
Unlike gymnosperm, ovules of flowering plants are enclosed in ovary (after fertilization ovules becomes seeds, and ovary into fruit
|
|
The flower
|
contains sepals, petals, stamens, carpels , functions in reproduction
|
|
EXPLAIN LIFE CYCLE OF FLOWERING PLANT AND EXPLAIN DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
|
Sporophyte generation is dominant in flowering plants
Each microspore creates pollen grain, 1 of each 4 megaspores made by meiosis develops into embryo sac
Double fertilization
|
|
Each microspore creates pollen grain, 1 of each 4 megaspores made by meiosis develops into embryo sac
|
Sac contains 7 cells with 2 polar nuclei
|
|
Double fertilization
|
results in the formation of a diploid zygote and triploid endosperm and is characteristic of flowering plants
|
|
CONTRAST EUDICOTS AND MONOCOTS (TWO BIGGEST FLOWERING PLANTS)
|
Monocots have floral parts in threes and their seeds each contain 1 cotyledon , the nutritive tissue in their mature seeds is endosperm
Eudicots usually have floral parts in 4 or 5’s and seeds contain 2 cotyledons
|
|
Eudicots usually have floral parts in 4 or 5’s and seeds contain 2 cotyledons
|
Nutritive organs in their mature seeds
|
|
DISCUSS EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS OF FLOWERING PLANTS
|
Flowering plants reproduce sexually by making flowers, after double fertilization seeds form within fruits
They have efficient water conducting vessel elements in their xylem and efficient carb conducting sieve tube elements in phloem
|
|
SUMMARIZE EVOLUTION OF GYMNOSPERM FROM SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS, AND TRACE EVOLUTION OF FLOWERING PLANTS FROM GYMNSPERM
|
Seed plants wrose from seedless plants, progymnosperm were seedless vascular plants that had woody tissue
Evolution is unclear
Flowering probably descended from ancient gymnosperms
|
|
Seed plants wrose from seedless plants, progymnosperm were seedless vascular plants that had woody tissue
|
These gave rise to seed ferns
|
|
CHAPTER 32- PLANT STRUCTRE, GROWTH, AND DIFFERENTIATION
|
OVERVIEW
CONTRAST 2 DIFFERENT LIFE HISTORY STRATEGIES FOR PLANTS
DISCUSS FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS PARTS OF PLANTS, INCLUDING SHOOT AND ROOT SYSTEMS
DESCRIBE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM
DESCRIBE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM (XYLEM AND PHLOEM)
DESCRI…
|
|
Many woody perennials are deciduous where they shed their leaves before winter to produce new stems and new leaves later
|
Ex. Evergreen are other type that keep needles
|
|
CONTRAST 2 DIFFERENT LIFE HISTORY STRATEGIES FOR PLANTS
|
Plants have variety of strategies; long lived trees survive in rainforest where small plants cant live there
|
|
DISCUSS FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS PARTS OF PLANTS, INCLUDING SHOOT AND ROOT SYSTEMS
|
Vascular plants are comprised of root and shoot system
Although separate organs (root, shoot, leave, bud) exist in plants, tissue system are integrated through plant body
|
|
Vascular plants are comprised of root and shoot system
|
Root system is underground and gets water and minerals for plant, also keep plant in place
Shoot system is aerial and gets sunlight and exchanged gases like co2 and oxygen
Buds are underdeveloped embryonic shoots and develop on stems
|
|
Shoot system is aerial and gets sunlight and exchanged gases like co2 and oxygen
|
Consists of vertical stem that bears leaves and reproductive structures
|
|
Although separate organs (root, shoot, leave, bud) exist in plants, tissue system are integrated through plant body
|
Composed of 3 tissue systems; ground, vascular, and dermal
|
|
DESCRIBE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM
|
Ground tissue system consists of 3 tissues
|
|
Ground tissue system consists of 3 tissues
|
Parenchyma tissue is composed of living parenchyma cells that have primary cell walls
Collenchyma tissue consists of collenchyma cells with unevenly thickened primary cell walls, tissue provides structural support
Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of cells sclereids or fibers that both ha…
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|
Parenchyma tissue is composed of living parenchyma cells that have primary cell walls
|
Functions are photosynthesis, storage and secretion
|
|
DESCRIBE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM (XYLEM AND PHLOEM)
|
Vascular tissue system conducts materials throughout plant body and provides support
Xylem is complex tissue that conducts water and minerals
Phloem is complex tissue that conducts sugar in solution
|
|
Xylem is complex tissue that conducts water and minerals
|
Cells that actually conduct are tracheids and vessel elements
|
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Phloem is complex tissue that conducts sugar in solution
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Sieve tube elements are conducting cells of phloem
They are assisted by companion cells
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DESCRIBE STRUCTURE AND FUCNTIONS OF DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM
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Dermal tissue system is outer protective covering of plant body
Epidermis is a complex tissue that covers plant body
Periderm is complex tissue that covers woody parts of plant
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Epidermis is a complex tissue that covers plant body
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That covers aerial parts secrete waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
Stomata permits gas exhange between interior of shoot system and surrounding atmosphere
Trichomes are outgrowths or hairs that occure in many sizes and have variety of functions
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WHAT IS MEANT BY GROWTH IN PLANTS, HOW DOES IT DIFFER THAN GROWTH IN ANIMALS
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Growth in plants is localized in specific regions called meristems
Growth is 3 processes: cell division, cell elongation, cell differentiation
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DIFFER BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH
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Primary is increased in stem or root growth
Secondary is increase in stem or root girth only occurs in long cylinders of meristematic cells through length of older stems or roots
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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN APICAL MERISTEMS ND LATERAL MERISTEMS
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Primary growth results from activity of apical meristems that are localized at tips of roots and shoots and within buds of stems
The two lateral meristems responsible for secondary growth are the vascular cambium and the cork cambium
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DISCUSS VARIATION IN LEAF FORM, INCLUDING SIMPLE VS COMPOUND, ARRANGEMENT ON STEM, AND VENATION PATTERNS
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Usually consist of a broad, flat blade and stalklike petiole
Leaves that are simple have only one blade where as compound has blade divided into 2 or more leaflets
Arrangement on stem may be alternate (one leaf at each node) , opposite (two leaves each node) or whorled (three or more)
…
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Usually consist of a broad, flat blade and stalklike petiole
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Some leaves have small outgrowths from base called stipules
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Leaves may have parrelel or netted venation
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Netted may be palmately netted with several major veins radiating from one point
Or may be pinnately netted with veins branching along entire length of the midvein
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DESCRIBE MAJOR TISSUES OF THE LEAF AND LABEL THEM
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Upper and lower surfaces of leaf blade are covered by epidermis . A wacy cuticle covers the epidermis to help plant survive dry condition
Stomata are small pores in epidermis that permit gass exchange during photosynthesis
Mesophyll consists of photosynthetic parenchyma cells. Mesophyll…
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Stomata are small pores in epidermis that permit gass exchange during photosynthesis
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Each pore is surrounded by two guard cells that are associated with epidermal cells called subsidiary cells
Subsidiary provide a reservoir of water and ions that move in and out of guard cells as they change shape
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COMPARE LEAF ANATOMY IN EUDICOTS AND MONOCOTS
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Monocot leaves have parallel venation where eudicot have netted venation
Some monocots (corn) do not have mesophyll differentiated into distinct palisade and spongy layers
Some monocots (grasses, reed, sedges) have guard shaped like dumbbells
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RELATE LEAF STRUCTURE TO INTS FUNCTION IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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Leaf structure is adapted primarily for photosynthesis (broad blades to get sunlight)
Stomata open during the day for gas exchange and close at night to conserve water
The transparent epidermis allows light to penetrate into the middle of leaf
Air spaces in mesophyll tissue permits the…
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EXPLAIN ROLE OF BLUE LIGHT IN OPENING OF STOMATA
|
Blue light which is a component of sunlight, triggers activation of proton pumps located in guard cell of plasma membrane
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Blue light which is a component of sunlight, triggers activation of proton pumps located in guard cell of plasma membrane
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Also triggers the synthesis of malic acid and hydrolysis of starch
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OUTLINE THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES THAT ACCOMPANY STOMATAL OPENING AND CLOSING
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Protons (H+) are pumped out of guard cells,
As proton leave cells an electrochemical gradient (charge and concentration difference) forms on two sides of guard cell plasma membrance
The gradient drives the uptake of potassium ions through voltage activated potassium channels into guard …
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Protons (H+) are pumped out of guard cells,
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Occurs when malic acid ionizes
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Stomata close when water leaves guard cells as result of decline of gradient
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Sucrose converts to starch which is osmotically inactive
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DISCUSS TRANSPIRATION AND ITS EFFECTS ON PLANTS
|
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from aerial parts of plants, occurs primarily in stomata
Rate of transpiration is affected by environmental factors like temperature, wind, humidity
Tranpiration appears to be both good and bad to plant, represents tradeoff off co2 requirment for…
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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TRANSPIRATION AND GUTTATION
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Guttation is the release of liquid water from leaves
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Guttation is the release of liquid water from leaves
|
Occurs through special structures when transpiration is negligible and available soil moisture is high
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DEFINE LEAF ABSCISSION, EXPLAIN WHY IT OCCURS, AND WHAT PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL CHANGES PROCEED IT
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Leaf abscission is loss of leaves that occurs as winter approaches or at beginning of dry period
It is a complex process involving physiological and anatomical changes
Abscission zone develops where the petiole detaches from the stem
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Abscission zone develops where the petiole detaches from the stem
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Sugar, amino acid, are transported from leaves to other plant parts
Chlorophyll breaks down and carotenoids and anthocyanins become evident
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LIST 4 EXAMPLE OF MODIFIED LEAVES AND GIVE FUNCTIONS OF EACH
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Spines are leaves adapted to deter herbivores
Tendrils are modified for grasping and holding other structures (support weak stems)
Bud scales are modified to protect delicate meristematic tissue or dormant buds
Bulbs are short underground stems with fleshy leaves specialized for storag…
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CHAPTER 34- STEMS AND TRANSPORT IN VASCULAR PLANTS
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DESCRIBE THE EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A WOODY TWIG
NAME TWO LATERAL MERISTEMS AND DESCRIBE THE TISSUES THAT ARISE FROM EACH
OUTLINE THE TRANSITION FROM PRIMARY GROWTH TO SECONDARY GROWTH IN WOODY STEM
DESCRIBE THE PATHWAY OF WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANTS
DECRIBE WATER POTENTIAL
EXPLAIN ROLES …
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DESCRIBE THE EXTERNAL FEATURES OF A WOODY TWIG
|
Woody twigs show the external structure of stems
Node is the area on stem where leaf is attached
Area between 2 successive nodes is a internode
Leaf scar shows where each leaf was attached to stem
Bundle scars are areas within leaf scar where vascular tissue extended from stem to leaf…
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Woody twigs show the external structure of stems
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Buds are underdeveloped embryonic shoots
Terminal buds are located at tip of stem where as axillary buds (lateral buds) are located in leaf axils
A dormant bud is covered and protected by bud scales
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A dormant bud is covered and protected by bud scales
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When bud resumes its growth, bud scales covering bud fall off leaving bud scale scars
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NAME TWO LATERAL MERISTEMS AND DESCRIBE THE TISSUES THAT ARISE FROM EACH
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Vascular cambium is lateral meristem that produces secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem (inner bark)
Cork cambium produces periderm whch consists of cork cells which are replacements for epidermis in woody cells
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OUTLINE THE TRANSITION FROM PRIMARY GROWTH TO SECONDARY GROWTH IN WOODY STEM
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Secondary growth (production of secondary tissues, wood, and bark) occurs in some flowering plants and all cone bearing gymnosperms
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Secondary growth (production of secondary tissues, wood, and bark) occurs in some flowering plants and all cone bearing gymnosperms
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During it the vascular cambium divides in 2 directions to form secondary xylem (inside) and secondary phloem (outside)
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DESCRIBE THE PATHWAY OF WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANTS
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Water and minerals move from soil into root tissues
Once in root zylem, they move upward from root xylem to stem xylem to leaf xylem
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Once in root zylem, they move upward from root xylem to stem xylem to leaf xylem
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Most of water entering the leaf exits leaf veins and passes into atmosphere
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DECRIBE WATER POTENTIAL
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Water potential is a measure of free energy of water
Water moves from area of higher (less negative) to lower (more negative) water potential
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Water potential is a measure of free energy of water
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Pure water has potential of 0 megapascals where as water with dissolved solutes has a negative potential
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EXPLAIN ROLES OF TENSION—COHESION AND ROOT PRESSURE AS MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RISE OF WATER ANF DISSOLVED MINERALS IN XYLEM
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Tension cohesion model explains that the evaporative pull of transpiration causes tension at top of plant
As a result of the cohesive and adhesive properties of water, the column is pulled right up through plant
Root pressue , caused by movement of water into roots from soil as result o…
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Tension cohesion model explains that the evaporative pull of transpiration causes tension at top of plant
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This tension is result of water potential gradient from slight negative in soil to very negative in atmosphere
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Root pressue , caused by movement of water into roots from soil as result of active absorption of mineral ions from the soil explains rise of water in smaller plants (particulary with wet soil)
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Root pressure pushes water up through xylem
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DESCRIBE PATHWAY OF SUGAR TRANSLOCATION IN PLANTS
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Dissolved sugar is translocated upward or downward in phloem from a source (with excess sugar like a leaf) to a sink (area of storage like roots)
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Dissolved sugar is translocated upward or downward in phloem from a source (with excess sugar like a leaf) to a sink (area of storage like roots)
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Sucrose is primary sugar translocated
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DISCUSS THE PRESSURE FLOW HYPOTHESIS OF SUGAR TRANSLOATION IN PHLOEM
|
Movement in phloem explained by pressure flow hypothesis
Companion cells load sugar into sieve tubes at the source (ATP required)
The proton gradient drives the uptake of sugar by the cotransport of protons back into sieve tube elements
Companion cells (requiring ATP) and passively (no…
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Companion cells load sugar into sieve tubes at the source (ATP required)
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ATP supplies energy to pump protons out of sieve tube elements
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The proton gradient drives the uptake of sugar by the cotransport of protons back into sieve tube elements
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Sugar accumulates in the sieve tube element causing the movement of water into the sieve tubes by osmosis
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Companion cells (requiring ATP) and passively (no ATP) unload sugar from sieve tubes at the sink
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Result, water leaves the sieve tubes by osmosis decreasing the turgor pressure (hydostatic pressure) inside tubes
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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TAPROOT AND FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEMS
|
Taproot system has one main root from which roots extend from
Fibrous root has several adventitious roots of the same size developing from the end of the stem
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LABEL CROSS SECTIONS OF A PRIMARY EUDICOT ROOT AND A MONOCOT ROOT, DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH TISSUE
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Primary roots have a epidermis, ground tissues, and vascular tissues
Epidermis protects the root, root hairs , are short lived extensions of epidermal cells, aid in absorption of water and minerals
Cortex consists of cells that store starch. Endodermis is innermost layer of cortex which…
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Primary roots have a epidermis, ground tissues, and vascular tissues
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Each tip is covered by a root cap a protective layter that covers the delicate root apical meristem and orients root so it grows downward
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Pericycle, xylem, and phloem collectively make up the roots stele or vascular cylindar
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Pericycle gives rise to lateral roots and lateral meristems
Xylem conducts water and minerals
Phloem conduscts sugar
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Center of monocot oot consists of pith surrounded by a ring of alternating bundles of xylem or phloem
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Monocot roots lack vascular cambium and don’t have secondary growth
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TRACE PATHWAY OF WATER AND MINERAL IONS FROM SOIL THROUGH VERIOUS ROOT TISSUES AND DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE SYMPLAST AND APOPLAST
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As water move through soil into root they pass through root hair/epidermis -> cortex -> endodermis -> pericycle -> root xylem
Water and minerals move through 2 pathways, apoplast (along interconnected porous cell walls) or symplast Ifrom one cells cytoplasm to the next through plasmomesm…
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DISCUSS THE STRUCTURE OF ROOTS WITH SECONDARY GROWTH
|
Roots of gymnosperms and woody eudicots develop secondary tissues (wood and bark)
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Roots of gymnosperms and woody eudicots develop secondary tissues (wood and bark)
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Cork cambium produces periderm (outer bark)
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DESCRIBE 3 ROOTS THAT ARE MODIFIED TO ERFORM UNCOMMON FUNCTIONS
|
Prop roots develop from branches or a vertical stem to grow downward into soil to help support certain plants
Pneumatophores are aerial “breathing” roots that may assist in getting oxygen to submerged roots
Some epiphytes have roots modified for photo synthesis
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Prop roots develop from branches or a vertical stem to grow downward into soil to help support certain plants
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Buttress roots are swollen bases or braces that support certain tropical rainforest trees that have shallow root system
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LIST AND DESCRIBE 2 MUTUALISTIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ROOTS AND OTHER ORGANISMS
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Mycorrhizae are mutually beneficial associations between roots and soil fungi
Root nodules are swellings that develop on roots of leguminous plants and house millions of rhixobia (nitrogen bacteria)
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DESCRIBE ROLES OF WEATHERING, ORGANISMS, CLIATE, AND TOPOGRAPHY IN SOIL FORMATION
|
Factors include parent material, climate, organisms, passage of time, and topography
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Factors include parent material, climate, organisms, passage of time, and topography
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Most soils are from parent material that is broken into smaller particles by weathering processes
Soil organisms like plants, algae, fungi, worms, insect are important not only for formation but also cycling minerals
Topography is a regions surface features, affects soil formation. Stee…
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LIST THE FOUR COMPONENTS OF SOIL, AND GIVE THE ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EACH
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Soils is inorganic minerals, organic matter, air, water. Inorganic minerals provide anchorage and minerals for plants
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Soils is inorganic minerals, organic matter, air, water. Inorganic minerals provide anchorage and minerals for plants
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Organic matter increases soils water holding capacity and as it decomposes releases essential minerals into the soil
Soil air provides oxygen for soil organisms to use during aerobic respiration
Soil water provides water and minerals for plants and other organisms
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DESCRIBE HOW ROOTS ABSORB POSITIVLY CHARGED MINERAL IONS BY THE PROCESS OF CATION EXCHANGE
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CATIONS , positively charged mineral ions, are attracted and reversibly bound to clay particle which have a predominatly negative charges on outer surfaces
In cation exchange roots secrete protons which are exchanged for other positively charged minerals ions freeing them into the soil w…
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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MACRONUTRIENTS AND MICRONUTRIENTS
|
Plants require 19 essential elements for growth
Ten of the elements are macronutrients : carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, sulfar, and silicon
Micronutrients are 9 of the elements: sodium, zinc, chlorine, iron, boran, magganese, copper, nick…
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Ten of the elements are macronutrients : carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, sulfar, and silicon
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Macro are required in fairly large amounts
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Micronutrients are 9 of the elements: sodium, zinc, chlorine, iron, boran, magganese, copper, nickel, and molybdenum
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Micro is needed in trace amount
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EXPLAIN THE IMPACTS OF MINERAL DEPLETION AND SOIL EROSION ON PLANT GROWTH
|
Mineral depletion may occur in some soils that have been farmed because it disrupts the natural pattern of nutrient cycling from corn and are yanked early
Soil erosion is the removal of soil by acts of agents such as water and wind
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Soil erosion is the removal of soil by acts of agents such as water and wind
|
Causes loss of fertile soil because minerals and organic matter are removed as well
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OVERVIEW
|
Flowering plants are known as angiosperm which include over 300,000 species and most successful group of plants
Sexual reproduction in plants includes meiosis and fusion of reproductive cells
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Sexual reproduction in plants includes meiosis and fusion of reproductive cells
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Egg and sperm which are collectively called gametes
Fusion of gametes is called fertilization
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DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART OF A FLOWER
|
Sepals cover and protect the flower parts when it is in bud
Petals play role in attracting animal pollinators to flower
Stamens produce pollen grains
Carpel is the female reproductive unit
A Pistil is made of a single carpel or group of fused carpels
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Stamens produce pollen grains
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Each stamen is made of thin stalk (filament) attached to saclike object ( anther)
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A Pistil is made of a single carpel or group of fused carpels
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Each pistil has 3 sections
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|
Each pistil has 3 sections
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Stigma where pollen and grain land
Style through which the pollem tubes grow
Ovary which contains one or more vacuoles
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IDENTIFY WHERE EGGS AND POLLEN GRAINS ARE FORMED WITHIN THE FLOWER
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Pollen forms in pollen sacs in the anther
An egg and 2 polar nuclei , along with other nonpolar nuclei are formed into a ovule
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Pollen forms in pollen sacs in the anther
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Each pollen contains 2 cells
One generates two sperm cells and the other makes a pollen tube
Through the pollen tube the sperm cells get to the egg
|
|
An egg and 2 polar nuclei , along with other nonpolar nuclei are formed into a ovule
|
Both egg and polar nuclei participate in fertilization
|
|
COMPARE THE EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS THAT CHARACTERIZE FLOWERS POLLINATED IN DIFFERENT WAYS (INSECT, BIRD, BAT)
|
Insect Pollinated are often yellow or blue and have a scent
Bird Pollinated are often yellow, orange, or red and don’t have strong scent
Bat Pollinated often have dusky white petals and are scented
Wind Pollinated often have smaller petals or lack of petals and have no scent of nectar
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Wind Pollinated often have smaller petals or lack of petals and have no scent of nectar
|
Wind pollinated make a lot of pollen
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|
DEFINE COEVOLUTION, AND GIVE EXAMPLES OF WAYS PLANTS AND THEIR ANIMAL POLLUTERS HAVE AFFECTED ONE ANOTHERS EVOLUTION
|
Coevolution is recirocal adaptation caused by 2 different species (flower and animal pollinators) forming interdependent relationship that affects the course of both evolution
|
|
Coevolution is recirocal adaptation caused by 2 different species (flower and animal pollinators) forming interdependent relationship that affects the course of both evolution
|
Ex. Flowers with large, showy petals and scent have evolved in some plants whereas hairy bodies that catch and hold sticky pollen evolved on bees
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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION
|
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
Fertilization is after pollination in which the 2 gametes fuse together
Double Fertilization happens when in flower’s ovule egg fuses with 1 sperm forming a zygote (fertilized egg)
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Double Fertilization happens when in flower’s ovule egg fuses with 1 sperm forming a zygote (fertilized egg)
|
Zygote eventually develops into a multicellular embryo in the seed
The 2 polar nuclei fuse with the second sperm cell forming a triploid nutritive tissue called a endosperm
|
|
TRACE THE STAGES OF EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT IN FLOWERING PLANTS AND LIST AND DEFINE THE MAIN PARTS OF SEEDS
|
A Eudicot Embryo develops in the seed in orderly fasion, from proembryo to globular embryo to heart stage to torpedo tage
A mature seed contains both young plant embryo and nutritive tissue
A Seed Coat surrounds the seed
|
|
A mature seed contains both young plant embryo and nutritive tissue
|
It is stored in the endosperm or in the cotyledons (seed leaves) used during germination
|
|
EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE FOLLOWINGL OVULES, OVARIES, SEEDS, AND FRUITS
|
Ovules are structures with potential to develop into seeds
Ovaries are structure with the potential to develop into fruits
Seeds are enclosed within the fruits which are mature ripened ovaries
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DINSTINGUISH AMONG SIMPLE, AGGREGATE, MULTIPLE, AND ACCESSORY FRUITS
|
Simple Fruits develop from a single ovary that consists of one carpel or several fused carpels
Aggregate fruits develop from a single flower with many separate ovaries
Multiple fruits develop from the ovaries of many flowers growing in close areas together on common axis bc of sun
Acce…
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SUMMARIZE THE INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS
|
Germination is the process of seed sprouting because of internal factors affecting the descion to germinate or not
External Environmental factors include required oxygen, water, temperature and light
|
|
Germination is the process of seed sprouting because of internal factors affecting the descion to germinate or not
|
Factors include maturity of embryo, prescence of lack there of of chemical inhibitors, prescnce of lack of of hard, thick seed coats
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|
External Environmental factors include required oxygen, water, temperature and light
|
Ex. Before germinating, dry seeds absorb water by imbibition
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|
EXPLAIN HOW THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES MAY BE USED TO PROPAGATE PLANTS ASEXUALLY: RHIZOMES, TUBERS, BULBS, CORMS, STOLONS, PLANTLETS, AND SUCKERS
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Rhizomes, Tubers, Bulbs, Corms and Stolons are stems specialized for asexual reproduction
Some leaves have meristematic tissue along margins which detach attachable plantlets
Roots may develop adventitious buds that develop into suckers
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|
Rhizomes, Tubers, Bulbs, Corms and Stolons are stems specialized for asexual reproduction
|
Tuber is the fleshy underground stem enlarged for food storage
Bulb is a modified underground bud with fleshy storage leaves attached to a short stem
Corm is a short erect underground stem covered by papery scales
Stolon is a horizontal above ground stem with long internodes
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|
Roots may develop adventitious buds that develop into suckers
|
Produce additional roots and may give rise to new plants
|
|
DEFINE APOMIXIS
|
Apomixes is the production of seeds and fruits without sexual reproduction
|
|
STATE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION, AND DISCUSSES THE EVOLUTIONARY ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH
|
Sexual Reproduction involves the union of 2 gametes
Asexual Reproduction involves formation of offspring without fusion of gametes
|
|
Sexual Reproduction involves the union of 2 gametes
|
The offspring a genetically variable
Parental genotypes aren’t saved leading to genetic diversity among offspring
Is costly because both sexes gametes must be produced and then meet
|
|
Parental genotypes aren’t saved leading to genetic diversity among offspring
|
Lets individual change to its environment (survival)
|
|
Asexual Reproduction involves formation of offspring without fusion of gametes
|
Offspring are virtually identical to single parent
Identical genes may be good in a stable envirnment with no change
|
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Identical genes may be good in a stable envirnment with no change
|
Some plants that do reproduce asexually also do it sexually to have some genetic variablitity
|
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CHAPTER 37- PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
|
DESCRIBE PHOTOTROPISM, GRAVITROPISM, AND THIGMOTROPISM
DESCRIBE A GENERAL MECHANISM OF ACTION FOR PLANT HORMONES, USING AUXIN AS YOUR EXAMPLE
DESCRIBE EARLY AUXIN EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING PHOTOTROPISM
LIST SEVERAL WAYS EACH OF THESE HORMONES AFFECTS PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT: AUXIN, GI…
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|
DESCRIBE PHOTOTROPISM, GRAVITROPISM, AND THIGMOTROPISM
|
Tropisms are directional growth responses
|
|
Tropisms are directional growth responses
|
Phototropism is growth response to the direction of light
Gravitropism is growth response to the influence of gravity
Thigmotropism is growth response to contact with solid object
|
|
DESCRIBE A GENERAL MECHANISM OF ACTION FOR PLANT HORMONES, USING AUXIN AS YOUR EXAMPLE
|
Plants produce and respond to hormones , organic compounds that act as specific chemical signals for a veriety of responses that control growth and development
Enzyme-linked receptors are what plant hormones bind to
|
|
Enzyme-linked receptors are what plant hormones bind to
|
Located in plasma membrane, hormone binds to receptor triggering a enzyme reaction
|
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DESCRIBE EARLY AUXIN EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING PHOTOTROPISM
|
In 1870 Charles Darwin and his son did phototropism experiments on grass seedlings
With coleoptile covered plant didn’t bend, with coleptile removed no bed, with it covered it bent
1920 Frits Went isolated the phototropic hormone from oat caleoptiles by removing their tip and placing on…
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With coleoptile covered plant didn’t bend, with coleptile removed no bed, with it covered it bent
|
Darwin believed that some substance is transmitted from upper to lower plant
|
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1920 Frits Went isolated the phototropic hormone from oat caleoptiles by removing their tip and placing on algar blocks
|
Normal growth when block placed on removed tip
|
|
Normal growth when block placed on removed tip
|
Substance diffused from tip to agar to decapitated tip
|
|
LIST SEVERAL WAYS EACH OF THESE HORMONES AFFECTS PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT: AUXIN, GIBBERELLINS, CYTOKININS, ETHYLENE, AND ABSCISIC ACID
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Auxin involved with cell elongation; tropisms
Gibberellins are involved in stem elongation, flowering, and germination
Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation
Ethylene plays role in ipening fruits; apical dominance; leaf abscission; wound response
Abscisic Acid is a envir…
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Auxin involved with cell elongation; tropisms
|
Apical dominance is the inhibition of axillary buds by the apical meristem and fruit development
Also stimulates root development and stem cuttings
|
|
Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation
|
Delay senescence which is the natural aging process; it interacts with auxin and ethylene in apical dominance
Induces cell division in tissue culture where cells are isolated from plants and grown in nutrient medium
|
|
Ethylene plays role in ipening fruits; apical dominance; leaf abscission; wound response
|
Thigmomorphogensis is a developmental response to mechanical stressors like wind and senescence
|
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SUMMARIZE THE ACTIVITIES OF THESE PLANT HORMONES AND HORMONE LIKE SIGNALING MOLECULES: BRASSINOSTEROIDS, JASMONATES, SALICYLIC ACID, SYSTEMIN, AND OLIGOSACCHARINS
|
Brassinosteroids are involved in several aspects of plant growth and development such as
Jasmonates affect several plant processes such as
Salicylic Acid triggers systematic acquired resistance that helps defend plants against pathogens and isect pests
Systemin is polypeptide stimulate…
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|
Brassinosteroids are involved in several aspects of plant growth and development such as
|
Cell division, cell elongation, light induced differentiation, seed germination, and vascular development
|
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Jasmonates affect several plant processes such as
|
Pollen development, root growth, fruit ripening, and senescence
Also made in response to prescence of insect pests and disease causing organisms
|
|
EXPLAIN HOW VARYING AMOUNTS OF LIGHT AND DARKNESS INDUCE FLOWERING
|
Photoperiodism is any response of plants to the duration and timing of light and dark
|
|
Photoperiodism is any response of plants to the duration and timing of light and dark
|
Flowering is a photoperiodic response in many plants
Short day plants detect the lengthening nghts of late summer and flower at that time
Intermediate day plants flower when exposed to days and nights of intermediate length
|
|
DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF PHYTOCHROME IN FLOWERING INCLUDING A DISCUSSION OF PHYTOCHROME SINGAL TRANSDUCTION
|
The photoreceptor in photoperiodism is phytochrome (family of about 5 blue and green pigments)
|
|
The photoreceptor in photoperiodism is phytochrome (family of about 5 blue and green pigments)
|
Each chrome has 2 forms Pr and Pfr named for wavelength they absorb
Signal Transduction is the oathway that starts it, when phytochrome in cytoplasm absorbs red light and is converted to active form Pfr which goes into nucleus
|
|
Each chrome has 2 forms Pr and Pfr named for wavelength they absorb
|
Pfr is the active form, triggering or inhibiting physiological responses like flowering, shade avoidance , and light requirement for germination
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Signal Transduction is the oathway that starts it, when phytochrome in cytoplasm absorbs red light and is converted to active form Pfr which goes into nucleus
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In nucleus the chrome binds to transcription factor PIF3 (phytochrome interacting factor)
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DEFINE CIRCADIAN RHYTHM AND GIVE AN EXAMPLE
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Circadian rhythm is a regular period in organisms growth that approximates a 24 hour day and is rest by rising and setting sun
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Circadian rhythm is a regular period in organisms growth that approximates a 24 hour day and is rest by rising and setting sun
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Ex. Opening and closing of stomata and sleep movements
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DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PHYTOCHROME AND CRYPTOCHROME
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Both are photoreceptors that can interact to regulate similar responses like resetting a biological clock
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Both are photoreceptors that can interact to regulate similar responses like resetting a biological clock
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Phyto strongly sbosrbs red light
Crypto absorbs blue and ultraviolet A light
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BIO 123: Exam 3