158 Cards in this Set
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Shaping
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process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior
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Albert Bandura
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Observational Learning
studied aggression in kids
1) Said conditioning/reinforcement too simplistic to explain how kids learn
2) Conducted Bobo doll experiment
a) Adult punished—kids less aggressive than control
b) Adult rewarded—kids more aggressive than…
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Mineka's Study of Fear Learning
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a. Wild Rhesus monkeys fear snakes
b. Laboratory-reared moneys do not
c. Animals required to reach over cage containing snake to get food
d. Lab reared moneys
1) Initially reached over snake
…
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Latent Learning
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Learning occurs without reinforcement, but is only visible with reinforcement
3 groups of rats learn maze: reinforce regularly, never reinforce, reinforce starting on day 11
Group reinforced on day 11 are able to catch up to regular reinforcement group
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Test-enhanced learning a. Karpicke and Roediger study on Swahili-English word pairs
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1) Time to learn word list did not vary by group
2) Performance one week later revealed that additional study did NOT benefit performance but additional testing DID
a) High # Recalled:
ú study & test all material (4x)
ú test all ma…
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What is memory?
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a. The process by which we observe, store, and then recall any information.
b. Can be conscious or unconscious/automatic
Automatic ex—social mimicry, knowing what song is next on a cd
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What is used to measure memory?
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Recall
Recognition
Relearning
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Recall
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a. must produce the information, remembering in the absence of the item being remembered
1) Typically the most difficult test
2)example—essay questions on tests
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Recognition
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1) recognizing material when it is seen
2) often easier than recall
3) Example—multiple choice questions on tests
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3 Stages of Memory
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Encoding: stage in which information is first encountered
Storage: intermediate stage in which info is present, but is not being encoded or retrieved
Storage is inferred, but is not actively studied
3. Retrieval: stage in which info is remembered and/or used
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Relearning
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compare time needed to relearn material to initial learning time (how much longer does it take due to memory)
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Characteristics of Memory
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a. Duration
b. Capacity
c. Effects of encoding
d. Example of superior memory: Stephen Wiltshire: Human Camera
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sensory input→sensory memory→short term memory→long term
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Information Processing Model
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Sensory Memory
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Holds perceptual input
Very short Duration
Iconic Memory (Visual) < 1 sec (~250ms)
Echoic Memory (Hearing) <10 secs
Capacity not know
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Sperling's Discovery
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Discovered that subjects recall about 4 items, but must have had available all 12 items in their sensory memory (due to the high, mid, low tone experiment)
A. Partial Report Technique
1) Ss recall ~4 items. Conclusion—subjects must have had acess to all 12 items when the tone soun…
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Short Term Memory (STM)
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immediate memory for what you just perceived, limited capacity
There is a decay that occurs when there is a filled interval (like when asked to count back from 100).
The percent of numbers correctly recalled is negatively correlated with the time of the interval. This me…
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Characteristics of STM
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Chunking helps-single or group of letters, group of words 2. STM—involves rehearsal
a. Maintenance—repeat information
b. Elaborative—relate information to other knowledge
3. STM storage increases until old age (due to increases in chunking ability with age)…
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STM Forgetting is due to what?
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Decay-loss of info due to time
Interference- loss due to other info
Proactive- old info interferes with retrieval of new info
Retroactive newly stored info interferes with retrieval of old info
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Working Memory
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active processing system that keeps different types of info available for current use
-more recent version of the STM (more active than STM processing)
3 components of WM
1. Central executive—coordinates activity of the slave systems
2. Phonological loop—speech, words, numbers
3. Vi…
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Long Term Memory
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representation of facts, images, actions, and skills that may persist over a lifetime.
involves retrieval of information, and is theoretically limitless in capacity
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Primacy Effect
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LTM-Stage Theory of Memory
we remember items at the beginning of the list better than items in the middle.
Due to increased rehearsal for early items
More likely to be transferred to long term memory
reflects LTM
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Recency Effect
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LTM-Stage of Memory
We remember items at the end of the list better than items in the middle
Thought to be due to the fact that items are still in working memory
Recnecy effect reflects STM
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What are types of LTM?
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1. Declarative memory- memory for facts, information and events
1. Semantic- “generic” knowledge of facts
2. Episodic- memories of specific events – autobiographical
2. Procedural/nondeclarative memory- memory for skills, habits, and conditioning
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6 Factors that affect storage of LTM
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Organization
Depth of Processing
Massed vs. Distributed Practice
Emotion
State Dependent Learning
Context Dependent Learning
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Organization affecting LTM
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We are more likely to recollect information that is organized in such a way that its meaningful and can be tied to existing knowledge
1. Mnemonic devices (EGBDF)
2. Dual encoding- we remember words that evoke visual images better than words that do not evoke visual images.…
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Depth of Processing affecting LTM
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-focusing on meaning of information, as opposed to physical characteristics, results in better storage.
Semantic- does the word fit into the sentence
Phonological/acoustic- does the word rhyme with “cat”?
Orthographic/visual- is the word printed in capital letters?
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Massed vs. Distributed Practice affecting LTM
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the “spacing effect”: if we review material repeatedly over time, we are more likely to remember it later than if we review material repeatedly in a short time
Studying 30 minutes every night for 2 weeks results in better retention than studying for 7 hours straigh…
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Emotion affecting LTM
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-highly emotional material is remembered better than non-emotional material
In an experiment, memory for events that were in an emotional story was better.
Memory for images was better when participants listened to the emotional story
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State Dependent Learning
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remembering is affected by both encoding and retrieval conditions. Memory is best if conditions of encoding and retrieval are the same
1. Emotional state
2. State of consciousness, drugs
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Context Dependent Learning
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-remembering is affected by both encoding and retrieval conditions.
Memory is best if context at encoding and retrieval are the same
Practice of giving final exams in different rooms is BAD for performance
Demonstrated with divers- Mean number of words recalled …
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Memory Accuracy/Distortion
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Memory can be primed- subjects presented with a list of words (bed, rest, wake, tired, dream..) that were related to the word “sleep”.
Most subjects recalled the word “sleep” even though it had not been presented
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Reconstruction of Memory
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-what we remember is usually NOT a simple “movie” of our past
Memory is a combination of recollection of information and our world knowledge andexpectations
Combination can lead to increased accuracy, but also distortion
Loftus Misinformation effect
Creating False Memories in Lab
Do …
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Loftus Misinformation Effect
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Study- participants saw film of a two-car accident
Misinformation- estimate speed of cars when cars: “smashed” into each other (41mph) or “hit” each other (34 mph).
1 week later: did you see broken glass? “hit” 14%, “smashed” 32%
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Factors Affecting Eyewitness Memory
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1. Obvious- passage of time, familiarity of suspect
2. Less obvious- race of witness and suspect, weapons focus
3. Over time witness beliefs about their testimony do not increase in accuracy, but they become much more confident. 4. In experimental studies,participants choose a perpetrat…
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Innocence Project
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nonprofit organization dedicated to overturning wrongful convictions. Uses DNA evidence to prove innocence
Innocence project has overturned 300 wrongful convictions. 17 of these individuals were on death row
Eyewitness misidentification was instrumental in the conviction of 75% of thes…
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Flashbulb Memories
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1. Associated with high confidence
2. Exceptionally strong memories, likely due to emotional activation of memory during encoding and even recall
3. Prone to distortion!- frequent re-telling of events, similar stories across other individuals.
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Forgetting and Failure of LTM
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Rate of forgetting
ebbinghaus forgetting curve- we forget most of what we learn in the first hour and the rate drops off over time
“self study” of 2300 letter trigrams, slower for more meaningful information
Permastore: if we remember something for 5 years we are likely to remember i…
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Causes of forgetting LTM
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1. Failure to encode- failing to put material into LTM, common in “forgetting” peoples names
2. Decay- fading of memory through disuse- impossible to distinguish from permanent retrieval failure
3. Retrieval failure- inability to find the necessary memory cue for retrieval- can be tempo…
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Retrograde Amnesia
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memory loss for events prior to amnesia. Typically only short period, not very common.
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Anterograde
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memory loss for events after amnesia. Inability to form new memories, Alzheimer’s, Korsakoff’s syndrome, trauma to hippocampus.
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Patient H.M. Amnesia
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1. Features of H.M. amnesia- High IQ (118) after surgery. No significant change in language abilities, personality, general cognitive status. Relatively spared retrograde amnesia- could recall events from distant and recent past
2. Severe anterograde amnesia- needs new introductions to …
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Hippocampus w/ Amnesia
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Involved with declarative but not procedural memory
Important for spatial memory- London taxi drivers: extensive training on where things are in London. MRI scans reveal taxi drivers have much larger posterior hippocampus than controls
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Korsakoffs Syndrome
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1. Failure to recall events from the recent past
2. Frequently disoriented in time/place and suffer severe anterograde amnesia
3. Often claim nothing is wrong and confabulate (fill in gaps of time/events of which they have no recall
4. Result of thiamine deficiency, common in severe al…
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Consciousness
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subjective experience of the world and one’s mind.
content of consciousness, level of consciousness, actions & thoughts may be conscious or unconscious
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What do we know about consciousness?
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1) Many animals share aspects of consciousness with humans
similar behavior, similar nervous system structure, evolutionary continuity
2) Consciousness does not require behavior, emotion, or language
3) destruction of localized brain regions interferes with specific content of consciou…
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What do we NOT know about consciousness?
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1) minimal brain size for consciousness to occur
2) whether it requires a body
3) which type of systems, biological or synthetic, have consciousness
4) how the brain gives rise to consciousness
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Consciousness vs. Attention
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2 processes are closely linked, but not the same
consciousness can occur outside the spotlight of attention
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Do we have complete control over our consciousness?
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1) Do not think of a white bear. Did you? A lot of people do!
Thought suppression does not work!
Conclusion: we cannot entirely control the contents of our consciousness
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Variations in Conscious Experience
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1) Conscious experience is a continuous stream of thoughts that often floats from one thought to another
2) Consciousness is a unified and coherent experience
there is a limit to how many things you can be conscious of at the same time
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States of Consciousness
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coma
meditation
exercise-induced euphoria
sleep
altered states of cousciousness via drug use
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Priming
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-Information can affect our behavior even if we are not consciously aware of it
Subliminal priming: Presenting information for extremely short periods of time (subthreshold) can affect behavior (Whites primed with black faces respond in a more hostile way than if pri…
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Coma
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a.Patients unable to respond to surroundings
1) Maintained sleep/wake cycles
b. Famous case: Terry Schiavo
1) Entered coma after heart attack
2) Lived in vegetative state for 15 years
3) Legal battle: kept alive because her parents believed she would recover
c. S…
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Communication with patients in vegetative state
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1) Advanced neuroimaging techniques have allowed researchers to communicate with some patients
2) Patients instructed to imagine: playing tennis, or walking through a neighborhood
3) Experimenter asked yes/no questions
4) Visualize playing tennis- “yes”, visualize walking through a nei…
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Sleep
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a. Ancient Greeks: sleep is an imperfect fulfillment of death, nightly we sleep, and therefore nightly we partially die
b. Physical activity decreases
c. Stereotypic posture
d. Response to stimulation decreases
…
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Who sleeps?
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Mammals, birds, some fish, reptiles, even fruit flies have sleep-like rest states
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Variation in characteristics of sleep
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1) Amount—predators and smaller mammals sleep longer
2) Stereotypic posture—standing up, upside down, etc.
3) Timing—diurnal (humans) vs. nocturnal (mice, bats)
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Stereotypic posture of sleep
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Bats sleep upside down, horses sleep standing up, leopard sleep in tree limbs, seals/hippo can sleep underwater
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Unique aspects of animal sleep
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1) migratory birds sleep while flying across the ocean
2) unihemispheric sleep in dolphins/porpoises/seals/whales and ducks, sleep with only half the brain at a time
3) Dolphins/porpoises, certain types of seals/whales- enable them to breathe while sleeping/swimming
4) Ducks- enables t…
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Measuring Sleep
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a. Brain activity varies based on wake/sleep stage
1) varies in amplitude and frequency
b. Measuring Sleepiness (subjective scales)
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Sleep Stages
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Stage 1 (light, sleep)
1) Steady breathing, transitional sleep
2) Feel as if floating, could be aware of surroundings
3) Awaken easily
Stage 2 (about 10 minutes after sleep onset)
1) Relaxed
2) Characterized by…
…
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Napping
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(short segments of sleep during daytime)
a. Usually includes short-wave sleep
b. Do not usually include REM
c. If late in the day, it may affect ability to fall asleep and sleep hygiene- less SWS/more stage 2
d. Normal in many mammalian species- 85% polyphasic sleepers, we are rare!
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Functions of sleep
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a. Areas of the brain that are phylogentically old
b. Different species have different sleep patterns- could reflect evolutionary adaptation to environmental conditions
c. Under conditions of sleep deprivation many aspects of physiologic and cognitive function decline
d. Primary theori…
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Restoration Theory
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a. Animals sleep so that biochemical and physiological repairs can take place
1) Sleep revitalizes and restores physiological processes that keep the mind and body healthy and functioning properly
2) Makes intuitive sense- we feel better after sleeping
b. Evidence in s…
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Adaptive Theory: Basic Concept
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a. Basic concept: sleep is an adaptive behavior favored by evolution
b. Sleep behaviors shown by a species depends on the need to adapt to environmental threats/dangers
Sleep keeps animals immobile and safe from predators during time when they cannot engage in feeding …
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Adaptive Theory: Energy Metabolism
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Duration of sleep obtained by a given species may be determined by food requirements and energy requirements
Smaller animals tend to have higher metabolism, have higher energy needs, and fewer energy stores than larger animals
During sleep, temperatures drop, lowering need for energy
I…
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Adaptive Theory: Predator Avoidance
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Duration of sleep may also be determined by predator avoidance
It would seem plausible that animas who have many natural predators might sleep more than predators-stay our of harms way when most vulnerable
However some predators tend to sleep longer than prey animals
Prey animals might…
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Adaptive Theory: Evidence For It
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Species that are unlikely to be attacked and eat food rich in nutrients tend to sleep a lot
Herbivores who need to graze for much of the day tend to sleep very little
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Adaptive Theory: Short Sleepers
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Sleep is less essential according to adaptive theory than restoration theory
70 year old “miss m” reported sleeping only 1 hr per night. She was still cherry and had a positive
Restoration theory cannot account for such cases
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Adaptive Theory: Evidence Against
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1) Energy conservation is trivial
Amount of energy saved when asleep is minimal (about 100 kcal)
2) Risks associated with sleep (loss of consciousness) seem to outweigh benefits of energy conservation
3) unihemispheric sleep indicates that sleep function can be obtained even when an…
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Learning Theory
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a. Memory is strengthened across a period of sleep
1) Shown in both declarative and procedural memory
b. You clearly learn information without sleep
c. Basic conclusion: sleep may improve memory, but memory formation is not the primary function of sleep
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Define Dreams
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state of consciousness, we are asleep but experience a variety of astonishing visual, auditory, and tactile images often connected in strange ways, often contain emotional content
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When do we Dream?
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1) REM (majority of the time)
2) Rarely—in stage 1 and 2, sometimes in SWS
3) Dream content varies by sleep stage
a) REM: visual imagery, illogical, bizarre, emotional
b) SWS: more logical, less emotional
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Nature of Dreams
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1) 95% of dreams are forgotten
2) Higher recall for dreams when REM sleep
3) Over 80% of people dream in color
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Brain Activity During Dreams
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1) visual areas and amygdala highly active
2) Frontal lobe de-activated
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Drug Dependence
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1) Physical dependence-produces tolerance
2) Tolerance- increasingly greater amounts of the drug are necessary for the same effect
3) Physical withdrawal symptoms- confusion, seizures, hallucinations, increased heart rate and/or blood pressure, sweating, tremors
4) Psychological depend…
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Alcohol
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1) Depressant- acts on GABA receptors
2) Initial response- euphoria, reduced anxiety
3) With increased consumption: slurred speech, slowed motor and cognitive function, impaired memory
4) Prolonged use can result in korsakoffs syndrome and liver damage
5) Physical withdrawal symptoms-…
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Stimulants: Cocaine
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1) Drug effects- Dilated pupils, increased body temperature, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure
2) Affects reward pathways in the brain- blocks reuptake of dopamine therefore increasing dopamine in the synapse
3) Rats will self-stimulate with cocaine until death
4) Highly a…
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Stimulants: Amphetamines/Adderal
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1) Subjective effects
a) Increased wakefulness
b) Increased focus/alertness
2) Mechanism of action
a) Believed to bind to monoamine transporters increasing levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
b) High doses can also inhibit monoami…
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Ecstasy
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1) Began as therapeutic agent
2) Derivative of amphetamine
3) Subjective experience
a) Euphoria, intimacy with others, diminished anxiety/depression
4) Acts on monoamine transmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine)
5) Inhibits transporter agents, increasing levels of m…
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Hallucinogens: LSD
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1) First synthesized in 1938
2) Psychological effects
a) Extreme distortion of perception, thought, emotion and consciousness
b) Subjective experience often compared to dreams or meditation
3) Physiological effects
a) Pupil dilation
b) Reduce appe…
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Marijuana
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1) Not easily classified
a) Can have effects similar to depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens
2) Exactly how THC affects neural function is unknown
a) Discovery of cannabinoid receptors- respond to THC
3) Subjective effects
a) Altered cognit…
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What is Language?
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a. Arbitrary system
b. Symbolic communication (no systematic relationship between sound of word and meaning)
c. language is abstract (permits abstract thought)
1) can speak of things as they be, be, be, etc.
d. language is generative
1) key aspect of all human languages…
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Critical Properties of Language
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(Clark & Clark)
a. Communicative
b. Arbitrary (ASL is exception)
c. Structured at multiple levels (pattern is not arbitrary)
d. Generative
e. Dynamic (changing)
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Do animals have language?
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a. Noam Chomsky believes YES
b. Honey bees – waggle dance
c. Bird songs
d. Is this a language or signaling?
Signaling is reflexive reaction to presence of stimulus
Language has properties different from signaling (refer to things removed in time & space)
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Can animals acquire language?
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a. Parrots
can learn to comprehend and pronounce English speech, some can answer novel questions
b. Primates
Nim was raised to prove that non-human primates were capable of language, learned ~125 signs, no grammar ability, language use was strictly pragmatic
c. Is this really langua…
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The Universality of Language
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a. deaf children invent sign language
b. all cultures have a language
1. languages are “unique but the same”
different words, sounds and rules
all have nouns, verbs, negatives, questions, past/present tense
2. grammar is what makes language special
simple rules that produce en…
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Sapire-Whorf hypothesis
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a. Thought determined by language
b. Speakers of different languages think differently
c. Linguistic relativity
Different languages = different ways of viewing world
d. Linguistic determinism
How we think is determined by the language we speak
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Does language determine thought?
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In general, the “strong” view that thought is determined by language has been abandoned
Language appears to influence some aspects of cognition
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How is info represented in the mind?
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a. Defining attribute model
1) Objects are organized into categories and members of a subordinate category have all the attributes of that category & all the attributes of any superordinate categories
b. Prototype model
1) Some category members more representative than oth…
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Kosslyn's size experiments
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Participants are shown two pictures, with an object (a rabbit) far away (at the foot of an elephant), then a picture of a close up of the same object (same rabbit).
Findings- The amount of time needed to respond about a detail of an image depends on the size of the image
You’re exam…
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Shepard's Mental Rotation Task
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Shown two abstract objects and participants answer whether the two objects are the same shape or not.
Findings- A linear relationship between the angle of offset between two items and their comparison time.
One objet is “mentally rotated” until it lines up with the other.
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Thinking
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a. We organize information in our minds
b. Information IS represented pictorially but is IMPERFECT
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Judgement and Decision Making
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Visual representations DO affect decision making
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Logic and Probablility Theory
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a. Theory of how reasoning should work
b. How people actually do reason
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Deductive Reasoning
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Using logic to draw specific conclusions based on general conditions
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Syllogism
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Two statements called premises and a third statement called the conclusion
Syllogism is valid if conclusion follows logically from its two premises
Aristotle’s perfect syllogism
People are terrible at evaluation of syllogisms – 80% error rate
1. Categorical syllogism- Describes relat…
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Wason's Selection Task
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The participant looks at four cards, deciding if a card has a vowel on one side, has an even number on the other
Only 4% of people get this right
Shows confirmation bias- looking to confirm the hypothesis, not looking at what can disconfirm the evidence
People are much better with conc…
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Inductive Reasoning
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Using specific instances to draw general conclusions about a given concept.
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Inductive: Heuristic
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Cognitive strategies or “rules of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks
Representativeness Heuristic- Make decision based on how similar it is to the typical prototype
Availability Heuristic- Make decisions based on ease with which instances are brought to mind.
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Inductive R: Biases
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Predictable or systematic error, ignores probabilities in making decisions (representativeness), overestimates probability of events that are salient (availability)
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Monty Hall Problem
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a) You’re given three doors, behind one is a new car, behind the other two is a goat
b) You choose door #2
c) The host opens door #3, revealing a goat and gives you the opportunity to switch doors
d) Should you switch? YES! It gives you the best chance of getting the car
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Tversky and Kahneman Study
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Given short paragraph about a person with specific qualities or conditions
Participant is asked specific questions based on general knowledge of fictitious person
Proves the conjunction fallacy- when the probability of two uncertain events happening together are assumed to have grater o…
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Can thought or thinking be affected by cultural stereotypes?
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YES
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Stereotype Threat
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The consequences of self-relevant stereotype activation for academic performance
Fear of being reduced to the stereotype” can lead to underperformance
Most likely to affect those highly identified
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Steele and Aronson Study
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African-American and European-American Stanford Students
Make racial stereotype of intelligence salient by either indicating race or not addressing race atall
Examine test performance on a challenging verbal test
Results- with race priming, black subjects did staggeringly worse than bo…
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Spencer et al. (1999)
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1. Male and female participants
2. Stereotype threat: women and math
3. Two conditions –
No mention of gender where stereotype was highly activated
Saying there were no gender differences on test
4. Examine test performance on a challenging math test
5. Findings- when there was no m…
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Intelligence
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a. No agreed upon definition
b. A hypothetical mental ability that enables people to:
1) Direct their thinking
2) Adapt to their circumstances
3) Learn from their experiences
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Charles Spearman
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a. If there is something called “intelligence,” then performance should be correlated for different tasks
1) Intelligent people should do well at most things
2) Unintelligent people should do poorly at most things
b. Developed “factor analysis:” statistical technique …
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Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
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a. Proposed that “g” was two factors
Fluid intelligence (Gf) – information processing w/o previous specific experience, peaks in early adulthood
Crystallized intelligence (Ge) – mental ability derived from previous experience, increases gradually with age (word meanings, use of tools, c…
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Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
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a. Intelligence: The ability to solve problems, or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings
b. Suggested 8 different intelligences
1) Nature smart
2) People smart
…
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Criticism of Gardner's MI Theory
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Not enough evidence
Unfalsifiable-how can you disprove it?
Uses the word “intelligence” instead of abilities
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What do IQ tests measure?
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Hypothetical property – intelligence (assume response to test questions reflects consequential behavior)
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How is intelligence measured? Alfred Binet
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Binet-Simon Test (1905) for French students
Measured “natural intelligence” (mental age)
Intelligence- collection of higher-order mental abilities loosely related to each other
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Modern IQ Tests
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a. Stanford-Binet test (based on Binet-Simon test)
b. WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)
c. WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)
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Ratio IQ
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Mental age/physical age X 100, used for children
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Deviation IQ
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Individual score/average score for age group X 100, used for adults
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Are IQ tests a valid measure of intelligence
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IQ is highly correlated with academic performance
Predicts years of education a person will receive and their occupational status and income
IQ score is a better predictor of job performance than interview or education
IQ scores are positively correlated with life expectancy
Doesn’t m…
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How to interpret an IQ score?
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Average IQ score is 100; 68% of people are between 85 and 115; 96% of people are between 70 and 130
Cannot compare IQ scores with people of different ages
A person’s IQ score can change due to different factors
Changes in education
Psychological factors (depression, anxious)
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Why test intelligence?
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a.it to predict things (such as consequential behaviors)
b. Biggest individual difference
c. Underlies other parts of psychology
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Sire Francis Galton
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Introduced family and twin studies
Found mental characteristics of relatives tended to correlate = closer relatives correlated more closely
Hereditary genius – intelligence is inherited
Eugenics movements
Used to support apartheid, sterilization, and withholding basic right from minor…
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Is intelligence genetic?: Twin Studies
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1) Identical twins (monozygotic): 100% shared genes
2) Fraternal twins (dizygotic): ~ 50% shared genes
3) If identical twins are raised apart, it is an excellent opportunity to examine nature vs. nurture
Even studies of identical twins have problems:
1) Pre- and postnata…
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Is intelligence genetic?: Gender issues
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1) Women are slightly better at verbal tasks
2) Men slightly better at mental rotation
3) There’s no math difference
4) Gender differences on IQ scores decreased from 1960 to 1990
Women exposed to better education and more stimulating environments
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Is intelligence genetic?: Stereotype threat
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a. Stereotypes can affect your performance on IQ test
African-American and European American Stanford Students
When primed, the African-American Students did worse, with no raceprime, the African-American students did better
Male and female participants
Stereotype was eliminated, whe…
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Is intelligence genetic?: Racial Issues
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African-Americans, on average, score lower than European-Americans
There are several studies that prove that there is no genetic difference between different ethnic groups
Black and White children raised together have similar IQs
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Flynn Effect
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Rising average intelligence test performance over time
May be due to people becoming better at taking tests, more stimulating environments, better nutrition, decreased infectious disease with improved health care
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Motivation
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a. The moving force that energizes behavior
1. Direction or goal of motives
2. Persistence towards goals
b. Motives can reflect
1. Biological needs
2. Psychosocial needs
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Motivation: Behavior
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Can serve as part of the homeostatic process
Blood sugar levels dip – we eat
Core body temperatures goes up, we take off a layer of clothes and look for a frosty beverage
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Homeostasis-motivation
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1. Allows organisms to live in variable and unpredictable environments
2. Maintenance of “internal milieu” requires coordinated changes in both physiology and behavior
3. Tendency of the body to maintain constancy of the internal environment
a) Core body temperature i…
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Motivation: Evolutionary Perspective
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Argues that motivational systems contribute to reproductive success
We are motivated to engage in behavior that promotes survival
Evolution selects for animals (traits) that maximize inclusive fitness
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Motivation: Behaviorist Perspective
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1. Needs reflect a requirement such as food and water
2. Drives are states of arousal that accompany an unfulfilled need
3. Drive reduction theory- we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce drives
Physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives to behave in a certain way
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Motivation: Cognitive Perspective
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a. Goals refer to positive outcomes that are established by social learning
Getting a good grade
Finding a mate
b. Individuals set goals and monitor their progress toward them
Feedback about progress toward the goal is key to motivating performance
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Maslow's theory of human needs
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Cannot fulfill “higher” need until more basic needs are met
Physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization
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Biology of Hunger
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Hunger affected by level of glucose insulin and leptin in the body
Insulin- causes excess sugar in the blood to be stored as fats and carbohydrates
Leptin- protein released by fat cells, signals satiety
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Biology of Hunger: hypothalamus
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1. Lateral hypothalamus- stimulates eating
2. Ventromedial hypothalamus- restricts eating
After lesions to vetromedial hypothalamus, weight regulation goes awry
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Obesity
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Is an excess level of fat in the body, BMI great or equal to 30, or about 30 pounds overweight for a 5’4” woman
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Obesity: Risks
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Physical – heart disease, diabetes, stroke, cancer, early mortality
Psychological- negative stereotypes, basis for discrimination in jobs and housing
Difficulty in relationships
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Obesity: Possible Genetic Component
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Basal metabolic rate- minimal amount of energy used in resting state
Set point- weight maintained when no effort is made
Number of fat cells does not change- amount of fat stored in cells varies based on diet, exercise, ect.
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Obesity: Biological
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Obesity is heritable (twin studies)
Fat cell size and number may play a role in obesity
Homeostasis- the body may defend its level of fat
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Obesity: Environmental
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a) Obesity rates have increased dramatically over the past decades
b) Diet rich in fat
c) Low levels of exercise
d) Efforts to restrain eating
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Obesity: Cognitive and Socioculture Factors
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a) Obese individuals may be more responsive to external cues
ú Time? taste? Food as a reward?
b) Obesity rates have doubled in the US since 1900
c) Obesity is about to pass cancer as the highest preventable cause of death in US
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Gender Differences: Evolutionary Explanation
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1. Goal is to pass genes on
2. There are gender differences in mate selection based on
a) Investment in birthing/rearing
b) Ability to conceive/care for a child
3. Woman should be more picky, men should be more promiscuous
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Mate Selection and Sexual Behavior
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1. Predicts different age preferences
2. Males like young (post-pubertal) females
3. Females like older more mature men
Don’t lose fertility
Tend to gain muscle, skills, agility later in life
4. Cross cultural evidence
David Buss- in 37 cultures around the world males ideal mates w…
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Clark & Harfield (1989)
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An attractive stranger comes up to you and asks
Want to go on a date with me
Want to go home with me
Want to have sex with me
Date- men and woman equal response of yes
Home- women very few, men almost 70% yes
Sex- no women, men almost 80% yes
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John Money
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-Professor of pediatrics and medical psychology at Johns Hopkins
1. Argued that gender was learned and not innate3
2. Social definition of gender
3. Famous for his involvement in the John/Joan case
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John/Joan Case
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David Reimer
1. Reassigned as female after botched circumcision
a) Behaved as boy throughout childhood
b) Never identified with female gender
2. Later underwent genital reassignment surgery
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Guevedoces
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"penis at 12"
1. 5 alpha reductase deficiency- Dominican Republic
2. Raised as girls easily switch roles to male at puberty
3. For the rest of their lives, resemble men in all respects except:
a) Beard growth is scanty
b) No hairline recession
…
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Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
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a. Genetic males (XY) who appear female
Abnormal secondary sexual development in puberty, infertility
b. Cause: gene for testosterone recognition malfunctions
c. “Genetic males” are feminized
d. Women with AIS look and feel like typical women
The fact that they are genetic males ofte…
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Santhi Soundarajan
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a) Won silver medal for 800m race in 2006 Asian Games
b) Later stripped of medal after sex test revealed that she was XY
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Arguments Against Homosexuality
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Unatural
homosexual/transgender behavior observed in over 1500 animal species
Not Procreative
infertile couples, older people, the use of contraception
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Homosexuality: badly stigmatized in recent history
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Was a clinical disorder in the DSM II- APA changed its status in 1973
Homosexual acts were (and are) legal crimes
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Attempt to "cure" Homosexuality
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a. Pictures of nude men coupled with Apomorphine- induces nausea
Garcia effect
b. Electro-shock therapy
Turn off shock by pressing button which also replaced picture of naked man with woman
*Negative reinforcement
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Attempts to stop homosexual acts: Hormone theories
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Estrogen treatment- stops sex drive- used in legal setting (not to switch sexual orientation, but homosexual behavior)
Castration used form 1779-1950 to stop sodomy and sexual crimes- about 50,000 court ordered castrations in the US
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Born that way or choice?
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a. Why do we care? Legal and social implications
NY times/CBS poll (’92)- evenly split (choice/born)
b. Social stigma
c. Social effects
Discouraging single-sex education and youth organizations
Encourage early hetero contact
Keep homosexuals away from children
d…
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Evidence for nurture: the brain
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INAH 3 is 2-3x larger in males than females, gay males have small INAH 3
Anterior commissure larger in women than men, gay men more similar to women
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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
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Malfunctioning adrenal glands: high levels of circulating androgens, more likely to be bisexual or lesbian
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Fraternal Birth Order Effect
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A. Number of older male siblings has strong effect on sexual orientation in males
First-born son – 2% chance of developing homosexual orientation
Each older brother increases man’s odds of developing homosexual orientation by 28-48%
Accounts for at least 1/7th of the prevalence of homo…
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Evidence for nuture: Twin Studies
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a) MZ higher than DZ but not overall
b) Concordance rates vary a lot- highest reported 65%
c) Hamer et al (1993) study of 76 gay brothers
More gay male uncles and cousins on maternal side of family
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Sexual orientatioin is likely the result of a combination of what factors?
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Prenatal environment
genetics
environment
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Study Guide: Final Exam