Study Guide: Final Exam
133 Cards in this Set
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Hindsight Bias
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Also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism, is the inclination to see events that have already occurred as being more predictable than they were before they took place.
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Placebo Effect
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Experimental results caused by expectation alone
Thinking you are receiving treatment can boost your spirits, relax your body, and "relieve" your symptoms
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Illusory Correlation
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The perception of a relationship where none really exists
Ex. Going outside with wet hair will get you sick
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Confirmation Bias
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A tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs or hypotheses
Paying attention to confirming information and disregard evidence that goes against what you believe
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Dendrites
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Picks up signals from other cells
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Axon
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An axon is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body.
Transmits them to other neurons, muscles, or glands
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Myelin Sheath
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Forms a layer around only the axon of a neuron
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SSRI
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Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors
Used as antidepressants in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders, and some personality disorders.
Ex. Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil
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Corpus Callosum
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Largest bundle of neural fibers
Connects the 2 brain hemispheres
- Carries messages between the two hemispheres
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Lower Level Brain Structures
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Cerebellum-
Controls motor movments and balance
Reticular Formation-
Filters some of the sensory information before passing it onto the thalamus
Enables you to sleep with sound
Regulates arousal
Thalamus-
Sensory switchboard for the brain; all senses but smell
Medulla: Handles vit…
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Limbic System
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Emotion, Learning and Memory
Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, AMygdala, Hippocampus
Pituitary Gland (tells body to release hormones)
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Hypothalamus
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Motivation
Controls the "4 f's" (feeding, fighting, fleeing, fucking)
One of the reward centers of the brain
Creates pleasure
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Amygdala
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Agression and fear
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Hippocampus
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Makes up 85% of the weight of the human brain
Any high-order thought, perceiving, thinking, experience of self awareness
Conscious control
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Cerebral Cortex
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Covers the cerebrum
2 hemispheres, symmetric, divided up into 4 different lobes
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Frontal Lobe
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Hearing
Understanding language
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Parietal Lobe
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Sensation
Sensory processing
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Occipital Lobe
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Vision
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Frontal Lobe
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Language
Memories
Symbolic processing
Motor Control
Anything conscious
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Broca's Area
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Involved in speech production
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Wernicke's Area
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Understanding of language occurs
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Association Areas
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Found in all 4 lobes
Responsible for integrating information and linking sensory inputs with stored memories
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Absolute Threshold
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The minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste or ordor 50% of the time
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Difference Threshold
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A just noticeable difference
The measure of how different two stimuli have to be in order for the subject to notice that they are not the same
Webster's Law
Shown as a percentage NOT a number
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Visual Processing
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Visual processing is the sequence of steps that information takes as it flows from visual sensors to cognitive processing.
Scene
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Retinal Processing
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Receptor rods and cones
Bipolar Cells
Ganglion Cells
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Feature Detection
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The brain's detector cells response to specific features
Edges, lines and angels
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Parallel Processing
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The ability to carry out multiple operations or tasks simultaneously.
Brain to simultaneously process incoming stimuli, and in parallel computing by machines
Color, movement and depth
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Recognition
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Brain interprets the constrcted image based on information from stored images
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Rods
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Specialized to perceive dim light
First receptors to detect movement and register shapes
Cannot detect color
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Cones
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Function best in bright daylight
Allow people to see colors and fine detail
Divided into three different types which absorb wavelengths of light in the short (blue), middle (green) and long (red) ranges
About 6 million in each eye
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Classical Conditioning
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A form of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimli and anticipate events
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
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The unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus
Ex. Salivation when food is in mouth
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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The learned response to a previous neutral but now conditioned stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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An originally irrevelant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
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Extinction
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The diminishing of a conditioned response
Occurs when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
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A type of learning in which behavior is stregthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
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Operant Behavior
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A form of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behavior may change in form, frequency, or strength.
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Law of Effect
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Throndike's principle
Behaviors followed by favorable conseuences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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Operant Chamber
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A laboratory apparatus used in the experimental analysis of behavior to study animal behavior
Operant Conditioning: Skinner Box
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Shaping
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Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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Reinforcers
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Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
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Positive Reinforcement
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Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food
Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strenthens the response
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Negative Reinforcement
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Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock
Any stimulus that, wen removed after a response, strenthens the response
Not a punishment
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Primary Reinforcer
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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
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Conditioned Reinforcer
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A stimlulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
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Continuous Reinforcement
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Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
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Reinforcing a response only part of the time
Results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
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Fixed-Ratio Schedule
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Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
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Variable-Ratio Schedule
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Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
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Fixed-Interval Schedule
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Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
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Variable-Interval Schedule
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Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
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Generalization
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The tendency, once a response has been onditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit simlar responses
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Sensory Memory
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The senses momentarily register amazing detail
Hold information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics
Very brief retention of images
.3 seconds for visual info
2 seconds for auditory info
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Working/Short Term Memory
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Few items are both noticed and encoded
Conscious processing of information
Limited capacity
7+/-2 items
Brief storage: about 30 seconds
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Longer-Term Storage
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Some items are altered or lost
Explicit memory
Consciously accessible
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Retrieval From Long Term Memory
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Depending on interference, retrieval cues, modds, and motives, some things get retrieved, some things don't
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Spacing
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Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than achieved through massed study or practice
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Chunking
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Organizing items into familiar, manageable units
Often occcurs automatically
Expands working memory load
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Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
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An increase in the synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Neural basis for learning and memory
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Priming
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The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, predisposing one's perception, memory or response
Much of our information processing occurs automatically, out of sight and off the radar screen of our conscious mind
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Framing
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The way an issue is posed
How an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judements
Frame risks as numbers, NOT percentages
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Risk Averse
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For gains
WHen you frame info in terms of gains, it makes people risk averse
They want to lock in the sure thing and take no risk
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Risk Seeking
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For losses
People become risk seeking when given an option of loss
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
May lead us to ignore other relevant information
Enables you to make snap judgments
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Base Rate Neglect
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When you mistakenly judge the likelihood of a situation by not taking into account relevant date
We tend to ignore or underuse base-rate information
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Functional Fixedness
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The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
An impediment to problem solving
Ex. A person may ransack the house for a screwdriver when a coin would have worked
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Mental Sets
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A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
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Savant Syndrome
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Condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill
Computation
Drawing
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Information Processing Approach
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Intelligence is like having a fast "chip"
Multiple Intelligences
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Multiple Intelligences
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Linguistic
Logial-mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Intra (Inter)- Personal
Bodily-Kinesthetic
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How is intelligence measured?
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Alfred Binet: Developed tests of children's mental age (MA)
Lewis Terman: Wanted to track gifted children
IQ= MA/CA x 100
David Wechsler: Wanted to minimize language/cultue biases. Wanted to sort adults; Shift to relative position on the bell curve; mental age plateaus, but…
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Flynn Effect
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IQ scores has increased every decade
Due to: Nutrition, Greater Schooling, More stimulating environments
IQ is heritable
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Potentiation
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Behaviors that achieve the goal become especially rewardng
Ex. Cold water becomes a more potent reinforcer on a hot day
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Glucose
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Blood sugar
Too high - hyper activity
Too low- Coma
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Set Point Hypothesis
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Your body has a set weight to which it strives to return
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Set Range Hypothesis
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Weight can vary by +/-10% around the set point
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Anorexia
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Not eating
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Bulimia
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Vomiting
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Self Determination Theory
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Theory of human motivation and personality, concerning people's inherent growth tendencies and their innate psychological needs.
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Intrinsic
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For the inherent pleasure of the activity
Its enjoyable
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Extrinsic
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For some outcome
To get a good grade, graduate
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Locus of Control
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Who is the author behind my action?
Feeling of "who's in charge?"
Internal: Self
External: Outside of self
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Implicit Theories (Mindsets)
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A deeply help but seldom articulatd system of everyday assumptions and beliefs about the structure of some aspect of the social world
Main distinction is a person's belief that intelligence is mostly fixed or changeable
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Entity Theory
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Belief that intelligence is mostly fixed, stable entity
Can learn new things but underlying intelligence remains the same
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Entity Theorists
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Tend to blame one's owns intellectual ability when they encounter failure ("I'm not smart enough")
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Incremental Theory
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Belief that intelligence quality that can be changed/developed
Putting effort into learning new things allows you to develop/cultivate how intelligent you are
Emphasis on changeable factors responsible for developing intelligence to explain behavior
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Incremental Theorists
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Tend to blame specific changeable factors that may have led to the negative outcome
I didn't try hard enough
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Prototypes
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Mental image or best example of a cetegory
Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
Chairs or birds
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Heuristic
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Rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
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Algorithm
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Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
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Phoneme
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The smallest distinctive sound unit
Chat: ch-a-t
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Morpheme
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The smalest unit that carries meaning
May be a word or part of a word
Prefix and suffix
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Grammar
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A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand eachother
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Semantics
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The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in given language
Add -ed to end of word to signify it was in the past
gives rules for how to understand how words and morphemes are combined to produce meaning
Talked and talk- you know the differnce beca…
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Syntax
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The rules for combinig ords into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
gives order of sentence and words modifying other words
man bit dog "dog bit man"- you know the differnce because of syntax
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Babbling Stage
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3-5 months
Spontaneously mutters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
any infant can make any phoneme sound
Infants can distinguish phonemes of different languages better than adults
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One Word Stage
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1-2 years
child speaks mostly in single workds
starting to understand words from parents
parent says dog, baby will look at dog
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Two Word Stage
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2
child speaks mostly in 2 word statements
uses two word phrases that match household syntax
adjective comes before the subject
Telegraphic
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Telegraphic Speech
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Early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram
go car
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Linguistic Competence
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The ability to produce and understand utterances we have never heard before
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Critical Period
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If human isn't exposed to language at a certain age, its going to be extremely hard for them to learn a language later in life
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Statistical Learning
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They can tel that "ba" follows "be" because they hear "baby."
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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Certain needs are more fundamental than others
You can rank needs in hierarchial fashion
Traingle of needs
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Phsysiological Needs
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Breathing
Food and Water
Sex
Sleep
Homeostasis
Excretion
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Safety
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Security of:
body
employment
resources, morality
the family, health
property
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Love/Belonging
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Friendhsip
Family
Sexual Intimacy
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Esteem
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Self Esteem
Confidence
Achievement
Respect of others
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Self- Actualization
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Morality
Creativity
Spontaneity
Problem Solving
Acceptance of Facts
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Self- Transcendence
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Needs to find meaning beyond ones self
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Schemas
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Concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Cats, dogs, concept of love
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Assimilate
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Interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas (understandings)
Ex. Having a simple schema for cow, a toddler may call all four legged animals cows
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Accommodate
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Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Ex. A child soon leanrs that the original cow schema is too broad and accommodates by refining the category
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Sensorimotor Stage
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Birth-2 years
Infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activitys (looking hearing touching, mouthing, grasping)
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Preoperational Stage
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2-7 years
During which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
Difficult with conservation
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Conservation
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The principle that properties such as mass, volume and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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Egocentric
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The peroperation child's difficulty taking another's point of view
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Theory Of Mind
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People's ideas about ehir own and other's mental states about their feelings perceptions and thoughts and the behaviors these might predict
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Concrete Operational Stage
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7-11 years
CHildren gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Can comprehend mathematical transformations
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Formal Operational Stage
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12 years old
People begin to think logically about abstract concepts
If, then situations
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Id
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Contains reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives
Operates on the pleasure principle
demanding immediate gratification
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Ego
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Largely conscious "executive" part of personality that mediates among the damands of the Id, superego, and reality
Operates on the reality principle, satistying the id's principles that realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
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Superego
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The part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment and for future aspiration
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Schizophrenia
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split mind
Refers not to multple personality split but rather to a split from reality that shows itself in disorganized thinking disturbed perceptions, and inapporpriate emotions
Hallucinations, talk in disorganized and delusded ways toneless voices, expressionless faces, mute or rigid …
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Reciprocity
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People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing
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Commitment and Consistency
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If people commit, orally or in writing, to an idea or goal, they are morel ikely to honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent with their self image
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Social Proof
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People will do things that they see other people are doing
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Authority
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People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts
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Liking
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People are easily persuaded by other people that they like
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Scarcity
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Perceived scarcity will generate demand
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Injuctive Norm
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Tell you what you SHOULD do
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Descriptive Norm
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Tells you what people ACTUALLY do
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Study Guide: Final Exam