PTH_AS 2201: EXAM 1
174 Cards in this Set
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Superior
(cranial)
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Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body
*the head is superior to the abdomen
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Inferior
(caudal)
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Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
*the intestines are inferior to the liver
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Medial
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Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
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lateral
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away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
*the thumb is lateral to the pinky
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proximal
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close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
*the elbow is proximal to the wrist
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distal
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farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
*the knee is distal to the thigh
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anterior
(ventral)
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toward or at the front of the body, in front of
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posterior
(dorsal)
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toward or at the back of the body, behind
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superficial
(external)
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toward or at the body surface
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deep
(internal)
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away from the body surface; more internal
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Organ systems
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1. integumentary
2. skeletal
3. muscular
4. lymphatic
5. respiratory
6. digestive
7. nervous
8. endorcrine
9. cardiovascular
10. urinary
11. reproductive
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Integumentarysystem
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skin, hair, nails
function: protects against outside environment, maintains internal water balance
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skeletal system
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bones
function: supports body, restores minerals
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muscular system
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skeletal, smooth and cardiac
function: facilitates movement, pumps blood, moves materials through digestive tract, controls entrances and exits, generates heat
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Nervous system
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brain, spinal cord, nerves
function: transmits signals
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endocrine system
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hormones and glands
function: everything!
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cardiovascularsystem
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heart and blood vessels
function: carries nutrients and oxygen, removes wastes
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lymphatic (immune) system
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lymph vessels and glands, spleen, thymus, bone marrow, cells
function: guards against infection
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respiratory system
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nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, lungs
function: brings in oxygen, eliminates carbon dioxide
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digestive system
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oral cavity, esophagus, liver gallbladder, pancreas, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
function: food intake and nutrient absorption, elimination of wastes
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urinary system
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kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
function: maintains osmotic balance, eliminates nitrogeneous wastes
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reproductive system
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female: mammary glands, ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina
male: testes, penis, glands, vas deferens
function: reproduction
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standard anatomical position
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standing upright
head faces forward
arms at sides
palms face forward
thumbs pointed outward
feet flat
toes pointing forward
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what re the serious cavities
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pleural
paricardial
peritoneal
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sereous cavities
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lines with a membrane that secretes fluids, reduces friction when organs move or change shape
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visceral
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serous membrane lining outside of organs
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parietal
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sereous membrane on the outer wall of the cavity
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upper limb regions
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manus
brachial region
antebracihal reion
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saggital plane (median plane)
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divides the body into right and left
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Parasagittal plane
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Divides the body into unequal right and left sides
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frontal plane
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divides body into anterior and posterior parts
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transverse plane
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divides body into superior and inferior parts * also called a cross section
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embryology
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how body structures form and develop before birth
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fetus
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developmental stage lasting from wk 9 of development to birth
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embyonic period
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first 8 wks post fertilization
organs form 3 primary layers, basic body plan emerges
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fetal period
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wks 9-38(birth) organs grow in size and complexity
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conception
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the fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell
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development begins at fertilization
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male + female gametes=diploid cell
combo create a diploid zygote
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ontogeny
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succession of morphological changes during normal development
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totipotent
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cell can become any of the cell types that will be present in the adult
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cell differentitation
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development of specialized cells
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when does cleavage happen
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day 2 after fertilization
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leavage
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embryo does not enlarge but divides into many smaller cells(blastomeres)
at 12-16 cells aka day 3 called morula
end of day 4 fluid filled hollow ball blastocyst
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what is blastomeres
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many smilers cells divided by the embryo
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what is a blastocyst
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day 4, fluid filled hollow ball
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what are two cells in blastocyst
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trophoblast
inner cell mass
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which blastocyst cell gives rise to embryo
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the inner cell mass
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which blastocyst cell helps form the placenta
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trophoblast
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what are the two layers formed by the inner cell mass
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DAY 9 subdivides into epiblast and hypoblast
*together form a bilaminar 2 layered disk that gives rise to the body of fetus and extra embryonic membranes
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where do th amniotic and yolk sacs come from
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extra embyonic membranes
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what is the role of the amniotic cell
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surrounds embryo, filled with fluid, cushions and protects
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what is the role of the yolk sac
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transitory but gives rise to the blood cells, vessels and digestive tube
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what process modifies a bilaminar disk to become a trilaminar disk
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week 3 gastrulation
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what stage in development is signified with a primitive streak
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days 14-15
streak appears on dorsal epiblast (top of embryo)
epiblast cells begin to migrate inward at the primitive streak
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what are cells doing around the primitive streak
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migrating inward, become the endoderm
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explain gastrulation
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wk 3 bi to tri form 3 layers--> day 14-15 epiblast migrate primitive streak become endoderm-->day 16 mesoderm-->any other cells remaining are ectoderm
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what are the primary germ layers
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endoderm
mesoderm
ectoderm
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endoderm
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inner embryo
lining of digestive an respiratory tracts
liver
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mesoderm
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middle layer
notochord, skeleton, muscles, dermis
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ectoderm
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surface of the embryo
epidermis, nervous tissue, neural crest, tooth enamel
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what are the three subdivisions of the mesoderm
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lateral plate
paraxial
intermediate
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ateral plate mesoderm gives rise to what
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coelum (body cavity)
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intermediate mesoderm gives rise to what
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forms the nephric and gonadal ridges
nephric-becomes kidneys/urinary structures
gonadal fudge-development of reproductive structures
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what is notochord and where is it found
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wk 3 rod of mesoderm on dorsal side of embryo forms notochord.
this defines embryos midline, provide structural support and stimulate development of neural tube(neuralation)
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paraxial mesoderm
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cells on both sides of neural tube form blocks called somites.
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somites
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dissociate into mesenchyme and migrate.
produce segmental structures including vertebrae, intervertebral disks and muscles
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somites will becomes...
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dermatome
myotome
sclerotome
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dermatome
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migrates out to form most of the dermis of the skin
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myotomes
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embryonic muscles segments that will form the muscles of the body wall and appendages
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sclerotomes
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vertebral column and occipitial region of skull.
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when does the body begin to fold
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by week 4 the growth of somites, brain and spinal cord cause tissue to fold. looks like tadpole embryo becomes more cylindrical
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week 1
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fertilization-day 1
cleavage-day 2
morula-day 3
blastocyst-day 4
blastocyst reached uterus-4-6
day 7 implantation takes place
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week 2
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day 9-bilaminar disk
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week 3
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bi becomes tri and produces 3 germ layers
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days 14-15
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become endoderm
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day 16
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ectoderm
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day 17-22
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neuralation
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week 4
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tadpole
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week 5
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limb buds
sense organs and face
umbilical cord forms
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week 8
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embryo takes on recognizable form
development of gonands(female or male)
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3-4 months
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organs systems established, brain enlarging, eye developing, movement
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months 5-6
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limb movements stronger, organs continue to delevop and mature
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months 6-7
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weight increases, hair on head, lungs complete development
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months 8-9
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fat accumulates, immune system develops
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hierarchy of the body structure
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cells make tissues
tissues make organs
organs make organ systems
organ systems make organisms
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what is a tissue
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group of cells similar structure that work together to perform a common function
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what re the four basic tissue types
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epithelia
connective
muscle tissue
neural tissue
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what is the function of epithelia tissue
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layer of cells that cover body surfaces or line body cavity
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what is the function of connective
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fills internal spaces, provides structural support for other tissues, transports materials within body and stores energy reserves
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what is the function of muscle tissue
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contract to produce movement
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what is the function of neural tissue
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specialized for conduction of nervous impulses from one part of the body to another
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what are characteristics of epithelial tissue
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1. dense cellularity
2.specialized contacts between cells
3. polarity
4. supported by connective tissue
5. avascular but innervated
6. regenerative
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how do you recognize the apical vs basal surface
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apical extends on to the surface while basal attaches to the underlying tissue
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simple vs stratified
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simple-single layer typically in protected areas of the body, often areas specialized for secretion/absorption
stratified-multiple layers in areas subject to heavy wear
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squamous
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flat
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cubodial
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cube shaped
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columnar
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columns
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simple squamous
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thin and flat, excellent for gas exchange
found in the alveoli of the lungs, capillary beds, lining of the heart and blood vessels, renal corpuscles
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stratified squamous
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protects against abrasion
typically found where mechanical stresses are severe-surface of the skin, mouth esophagus and anus
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simple cubodal
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adapted for secretion and absorption, kidney, tubules surface of ovaries and glands
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stratified cubodial
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funtion is protection
primarily found along the ducts of sweat glands and in mammary glands
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transitional
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function: stretches. tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoil without damage
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simple columnar
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single layer of tall cells
found where there is much absorption and secretion, including the stomach small and large intestines
may have cilia or microvilli
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microvilli
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mostly found of surface areas that have high absorption and secretion, intestines
not mobile
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cilia
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found on ciliated spoethelium mostly bronchial tubes
are mobile, move mucus from lungs toward throat
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psuedostratified columnar
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secretion propulsion of mucus using cilia
found along respiratory tract
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stratified columnar
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protection and excretion
typical found along parts of male urethra
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what is a glandular epithelium
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collection of epithelial cells that produce secretions are called glands
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typical cells associated with glandular epithelium
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goblet
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difference between endocrine gland and exocrine gland
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endo=hormones ductless, release secretion into bloodstream
exo=enzymes release secretions into ducts of the body surface or cavity
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goblet cells
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unicellular exocrine glands secrete mucus. common in the trachea large and small intestines
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characteristicsof CT
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fills internal spaces, provides structural support for other tissues, transports metraials within the body and stores energy reserves
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basic composition of a ct
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cells, fibers and ground substance
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What determines the specific properties of a particular kind of connective tissue?
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Specific fibers and how tight/loose cells are packed
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What kind of cells are the embryological precursor to all kinds of connective tissue?
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Mesenchyme
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In terms of fibers, how do loose and dense connective tissue differ?
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Loose: fibers are widely spaced
Dense: most of the space is fibers (mostly collagen)
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What is the primary fiber type found in dense CT? What is the benefit of using this kind of fiber?
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Collagen, and because it helps resist pulling/tensile forces
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Least specialized, loose connective tissue
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areolar
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Types of Fibers and their properties: reticular, collagen, elastic
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Reticular: short, fine, collagenous fibers, smaller than collagen
Collagen: extremely tough and provide high tensile strength to matrix
Elastic: long, thin fibers that form branching networks in the extracellular matrix, stretch and recoil
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loose connective tissues: types and where each is found
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adipose-stores nutrients provides padding, absorbs shocks insulator. below dermis of skin in body cavities
areolar-supports binds other tissues, holds body fluids, defends infection, stores nutrients, beneath eli tissue small nerves and bv
reticular-forms a scaffold to support other cel…
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Types of Dense (fibrous) Connective Tissue
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dense regular
dense irregular
elastic
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Dense Regular Connective Tissue
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function: attaches bone to muscle or muscle to bone
location: tendons
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dense irregular connective tissue
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strengths and supports areas subjected to stresses fro many directions
fibrous capsule around organs such as liver, kindyes, spleen, bone and joint cavities
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Dense Connective tissue; ELASTIC
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Collagen fibers with lots of elastic fibers
-found in specific attachments b/w vertebrae
-in walls of large arteries
-in airways
-heart
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Dense irregular and regular CT
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Irregular:
-highly cellular, high AGS to cell ratio, varying vasculature
-forms dermis
-thinner bundles, randomly arranged
Regular:
-low cells, low AGS to cell ratio, avascular
-forms tendons and ligaments
-thick bundles, parallel, and closely packed
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Fat is what cell type/tissue type?
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Adipose
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What type of tissue are tendons and ligaments?
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connective tissue
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The joint capsules are composed of what tissue type?
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Dense irregular CT
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What useful property is provided by elastic fibers/tissues?
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When elastic fibers outnumber collagen fibers, the
tissue is able to spring back after stretching.
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what are the cell types found in bone?
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osteocytes
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what are the cell types found in cartilage
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chondrocytes
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How does the matrix of cartilage differ from that of bone?
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Matrix in cartilage contains a lot of water, matrix in bone is calcium salts and some collagen
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which is harder/denser bone or cartilage
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bone
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why is blood considered a connective tissue
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develops from the mesencyme
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what is (are) the roles of muscle tissue
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skeletal-pulls on the bones
cardiac-pushes blood through
smooth-pushes fluids and solids and regulates diameter of small arteries
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what are the functions of the integument
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protection against mechanical damage
barrier to pathogens
barrier to fluid loss
vitamin d production
sensory recpetion
body temp reg
excretion of salts/wastes
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layers of epidermis
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Stratum basale - actively dividing cells
As cells move up, they make proteins and pigment and become differentiated. They loose their nucleus and become dead tissue at the surface, which is the stratum corneum.
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Is the Epidermis vascularized?
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No, because it receives nutrients/Oygen via avascular diffusion.
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Dermis - vascularized!
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Dermis – deeper, thicker CT portion
– Nerves, muscles and blood vessels embedded in layer
– Mesodermal origin - nourishes the epidermis
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what is keratin
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tough, fibrous protein that protects skin cells from mechanical brasion
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why are keratinocytes so important in the structure of the epidermis
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most abundant epidermal cell that protects skin against damage and infection
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Whats the difference between keratinocytes in the stratum basale and keratinocytes in stratum corneum
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basale: keratinocytes are alive and dividing
corneum: have filled up with keratin and are dead
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what is the effect of friction on the skin
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friction increases cell production and keratin formation this is what produces a callus
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what are melanocytes
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produce melanin, helps shield neclei of keratinocytes from uv
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Merkel
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Touch receptors, there are different kinds (heavy and light touch etc)
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what are dendritic cells
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immune cells
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Which layer of the Epidermis is composed entirely of Dead Cells?
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Stratum corneum
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Which layer of the epidermis is only found in thick skin?
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S. lucidium
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integumentary system part:
layer of rapidly dividing cells in the epidermis
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stratum basale
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Which layer of the epidermis produces granules that help to waterproof the skin?
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Stratum granulosum
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layer of epidermis with dendritic cells
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stratum spinosum
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which layer of the epidermis contains melanocytes and merkels disks
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stratum germinativum
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which layer of the epidermis is deep to the stratum corneum
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stratum germ
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Which layer of the Epidermis is deep to the Stratum Spinosum
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Stratum basale
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Layers of dermis
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Papillary (adhesion to epidermis-papillae), Reticular (large section of dermis. Primary sensory functions of skin. Nerve and blood vessels present throughout.)
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is the dermis deep or superficial to the epidermis
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deep
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What is the superficial layer of the dermis?
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Papillary layer
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Which layer of the Dermis exhibits dermal papillae
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Papillary layer
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What is the utility of dermal papillae?
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increase surface area for transport of materials into epidermis, form fingerprints
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How do dermal papillae create fingerprints
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Pushes up and elevates the overlying epidermis (create epidermal ridges)
Patterns are unique
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Which layer of the skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis) contains large amounts of adipose tissue? How is adipose helpful to the integument?
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Hypodermis, fat, insulation, and anchors skin to muscles
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Which layer of the integument are glands and hair follicles derived
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Epidermis
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Into which layer of the integument do glands and hair follicles extend
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Dermis
Sometimes hypodermis
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of what protein is hair composed
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keratin
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what is the job of hair
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senation protection insulation
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bulb- nourishes
hair; matrix- growth cycle; sebaceous glands; arrestor pili muscles; hair root plexuses
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accessory organs of hair
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different characteristics of golocrine, merocrine and apocrine
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holo-cell becomes packed w secretions eventually bursts and destroys
merl-secretions are released from secretory vesicles
app-involves loss of cytoplasm
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What type of sweat gland becomes active at puberty? Where are they located?
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apocrine gland;
armpits and groin.
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which gland discharges an oily secretion into hair follicles?
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sebaceous gland
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what type of sweat gland discharges directly onto skin surfaces, and widely distributed on body surface especially palms and soles?
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merocrine sweat glands:
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Why are the bones of the skeleton considered organs?
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They contain several
different tissue types.
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inorganic substance that makes bone hard
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hydroxyapatites
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What are the three types of cartilage?
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Hyaline (most abundant), elastic, and fibrocartilage are avascular, a nervous, and lack lymph vessels
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What are the two types of cartilage growth?
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1. Apositional (chondrogenic layer proliferates and cartilage adds around existing cartilage growing in width); 2. Interstitial growth (chorndroblasts secrete matrix within lacuane forming cell nests; secretion continues as lacunae move apart)
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Study Guide: Exam 6