IPHY 2420: FINAL EXAM
148 Cards in this Set
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cell
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the smallest functional structure in a living organism; a human has 100 trillion
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organelles
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structures within cells that perform specialized functions; EX: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
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tissues
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collection of similar cells that perform specialized functions
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epithelial tissue
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cells that form linings and coverings; ex: skin
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connective tissue
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cells that hold together, protect, and support organs; ex: bone, fat
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organs
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collection of tissues that perform a specific function
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systems
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collection of organs that work together to perform a major function
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homeostasis
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body trying to maintain a steady state (equilibrium)
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Respiratory System
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-main function is for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
-lungs: enable body to exchange gases, mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide
-nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
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Cardiovascular System
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-main function is to circulate blood throughout the body
-delivering oxygen, food, water and taking away carbon dioxide and waste products
-heart, major veins and arteries, blood
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artery
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(red) delivers oxygen rich blood to cells (high pressure)
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vein
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(blue) takes away waste and carbon dioxide (low pressure)
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Lymphatic System
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-helps maintain fluid balance, absorb many fat-soluble nutrients, and defends the body against diseases
-lymph nodes, lymphatic fluid, white blood cells, spleen, thymus
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lymph nodes
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inflame to respond to fight a problem, immunity support
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Urinary System
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-main function is elimination of salts, water, and wastes; maintenance of fluid balance
-kidneys, bladder
-body filters all of its blood 300x per day
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kidneys
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filter unneeded substances from blood and help maintain proper fluid balance
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bladder
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stores urine until elimination
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kidney stress indications
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hurts to pee, pee color
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dehydration
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whole body stressor
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hydration test
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skin release test, skin does not pop back "pinch test"
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Muscular System
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enables movement to occur, and provides support and protection
-muscles
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Skeletal System
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-bones provide support, movement, and protection
-bones also store certain minerals and PRODUCE RED BLOOD CELLS
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Nervous System
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-main function is thought processes, regulation and coordination of many body activities, detection of changes in external and internal environments
-(email system) neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and throughout the body transmit information and responses by electrical and chemical si…
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neurons
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nervous system cells
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Endocrine System
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-main function is regulation and coordination of many body activities including growth, nutrient balance, and reproduction
-organs and tissues that produce hormones
-thyroid, hormones
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thyroid
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influences metabolism (how many calories you need to stay alive)
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hormones
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determine sex, chemical messengers that regulate body processes and responses
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Integumentary System
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-main function is for protection, immunity, regulation of body temperature, and vitamin D synthesis
-skin, hair, and nails
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Reproductive System
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-main function: produce children
-only system we can live without
-gonads and genitals
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Digestion System
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-main function is digestion and absorption of nutrients
-mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
-GI Tract, Bioavailability
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GI Tract
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muscular tube that extends from the mouth to the anus
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bioavailability
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extent to which digestive tract absorbs nutrients and how well the body uses them
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mouth
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where digestion begins
-mechanical & chemical digestion
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mechanical digestion
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biting and grinding actions break and mash food into smaller pieces
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chemical digestion
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saliva mixes and lubricated food
-salivary amylase and lipase begin breakdown of starch and fat
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taste buds
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specialized sensory structors on the tongue and in the lining of the mouth and throat
-5 tastes
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five tastes
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umami, sweet, sour, salty, bitter
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smell
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chemicals in food become airborne and stimulate nasal passages, contributing to sense of taste
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peristalsis
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muscular contractions that move small amounts of foods and beverages through intestinal tract
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stomach
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-gastroesophageal sphincter, chyme, mucus, pyloric sphincter
-ulcers
-BRAT
-food is here for 7-8 hours
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gastroesophageal sphincter
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-located at the end of the esophagus
-controls opening and closing of the stomach
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chyme
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mixture of gastric juice and partially digested food, very acidic
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mucus
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layer of mucus protects stomach from acid
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ulcer
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stomach mucus is not maintained, acid burns stomach, often bleed, blood in stools, caused by h.pylori
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BRAT diet
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banana, rice, apples, toast
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pyloric sphincter
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controls rate of chyme release into small intestine
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Small Intestine
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-where most nutrients are digested and absorbed
-duodenum, jejunum, ileum
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vestigial
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an organ we do not need
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Liver
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-processes and stores many nutrients
-500 functions
-makes cholesterol and bile
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Gallbladder
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stores bile that aids in fat digestion
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Pancreas
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produces and secrets many digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions
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Absorbing Nutrients
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-villi, absorptive cells
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villi
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tiny projections that line the small intestine
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absorptive cells
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remove nutrients from chyme and transfer them into blood or lymph
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Large Intestine
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-absorption of water and minerals
-colon and rectum
-feces, rectum
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feces
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form as chyme becomes semisolid
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rectum
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lower part of the large intestine where feces are stores
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macronutrients
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provide energy to the body
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the body uses proteins to make or function as...
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-new cells and many components of cells
-structures such as hair and nails
-enzymes
-lubricants
-clotting compounds
-antibodies
-compounds that help maintain fluid and pH balance
-certain hormones and neurotransmitters
-energy source (minor, under unusual conditions)
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structural proteins
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-are in cartilage, ligaments, and bones (COLLAGEN)
-are in hair, nails, and skin (KERATIN)
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contractile proteins
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enable us to move
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clotting proteins
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needed for blood clotting
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hormone proteins
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chemical messengers that regulate body processes and responses (insulin and glucagon)
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enzymes (nearly all enzymes are proteins)
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speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions without becoming part of the products
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neurotransmitters
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-proteins
-send signals from one nerve to another
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transport proteins
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oxygen and many nutrients are transported in blood by special proteins, such as ALBUMIN
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amino acids
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-monomer of protein
-20 different amino acids in human proteins
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essential amino acids
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cannot be made by the body, must be supplied by the diet (9 of the 20)
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nonessential amino acids
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can be made by the body (11 of the 20)
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legume
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-plants that produce pods with a single row of seeds
-high protein, low fat, low sugar
-soybeans, peanuts, lentils, beans
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high-quality protein (complete protein)
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-contains all 9 essential amino acids in amounts that support growth
-animal products, quinoa, processed soy, rice & beans
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low-quality protein (incomplete protein)
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-lacks or has inadequate amounts of 1 or more of the essential amino acids
-most plant foods and gelatin
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Sickle Cell Anemia
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if DNA code is faulty, the wrong amino acid may be inserted into a protein, causing detrimental effects such as defective hemoglobin
-inherited condition that affects red blood cells
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denaturation
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altering a protein's natural shape and function by exposing it to various conditions including heat, alcohol, acid, and physical agitation
-heat and raw eggs
-acidic lemon juice curdles milk
-hydrochloric stomach acid
-whipping foods
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Protein Digestion and Absorption
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-stomach: denature proteins with stomach acid and partial digestion by pepsin
-small intestine: further digestion as the pancreas secretes protein-splitting enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin
-small intestine cells: final digestion occurs within the absorption of the cells
-…
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albumin
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protein that transports oxygen and many nutrients through the blood
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where is protein absorbed?
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small intestine
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protein turnover
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breaking down old an unneeded proteins into amino acids and recycling the amino acids
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amino acid pool
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amino acids that have not been incorporated into proteins yet
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endogenous amino acids
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amino acids from the amino acid pool
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exogenous amino acids
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amino acids from dietary sources
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positive nitrogen balance (when protein needs increase)
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-growth
-pregnancy, lactation
-recovery from illness/injury
-increased levels of the hormones insulin, testosterone, and growth hormone
-resistance exercise
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nitrogen equilibrium
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healthy adult meets protein and energy needs
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negative nitrogen balance
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-inadequate protein intake or digestive diseases that interfere with protein absorption
-increased protein losses resulting from certain kidney diseases or blood loss
-bed rest, fever, injuries, burns
-increased secretion of thyroid hormone or cortisol
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complementary protein
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rice and beans
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protein deficiency
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-uncommon in the US
-may occur in: elderly, low-income, alcoholics, anorexia nervosa, intestinal tract disorders
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Kwashiorkor disease
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-adequate energy intake, but low intake of high-quality proteins
-edema (swelling) -> boy with indent on his feet
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marasmus
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-starvation- extreme weight loss, stunted growth
-not enough calories or protein
-protein therapy
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allergy
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inflammatory response resulting when body's immune system reacts inappropriately to a substance that is typically harmless
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allergen
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the offending substance
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common signs of food allergies
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hives
-swollen itchy lips
-skin flushing
-scaly red skin (eczema)
-difficulty swallowing
-wheezing and difficulty breathing
-abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea
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common food allergies
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-protein rich foods: cows milk, eggs, peanuts, wheat, soybeans, fish & shellfish
-non-protein foods: food dies, sulfites added to wines, potatoes, shrimp
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treatments to food allergies
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-avoid them
-epi pen= epinephrine
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how are carbohydrates made?
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through photosynthesis
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simple carbohydrates monomer
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monosaccharide (sugar)
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glucose
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-primary energy source
-"blood sugar"
-dextrose
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fructose
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-fruit sugar
-levulose
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galactose
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-part of milk sugar
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disaccharides
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sugar comprised of two sugar molecules
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maltose
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glucose + glucose
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sucrose
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glucose + fructose
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lactose
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glucose + galactose
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table sugar (sucrose)
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-made from sugar cane or sugar beets
-refinement strips away vitamins and minerals
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complex carbohydrates monomer
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polysaccharides
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polysaccharides
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more than or equal to 10 monosaccharides bonded together
-storage form of carbohydrates in plants and animals
-structural component of plants in stems and leaves
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starch
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-storage form of carbohydrate in plants
-mainly in seeds, roots, and tubers
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glycogen
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-storage form of carbohydrate in humans and other animals
-stored primarily in liver and muscles
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fiber
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-most forms are complex carbohydrates that humans cannot digest
-insoluble:
-soluble:
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why are Americans so overweight?
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SUGAR
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insoluble fiber
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-cellulose/hemicelluloses
-increases fecal bulk and speeds fecal passage through GI tract
-all plants, wheat, rye, brown rice, vegetables
-lignin
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soluble fiber
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pectins, gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses
-fills you up
-delays stomach emptying, slows glucose absorption, can lower blood cholesterol
-apples, bananas, citrus fruits, carrots, oats, barley, psyllium seeds, beans, and thickeners added to foods
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lignin
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-insoluble fiber
-increases fecal bulk, may ease bowel movements
-whole grains, wheat bran
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whole grain
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-the intact, ground, cracked, or flaked, seeds of cereal grains
-must contain: fiber-rich BRAN, starchy ENDOSPERM, oily GERM
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digestion of carbohydrates
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-mouth: salivary amylase digests some starch
-stomach: acid inactivates salivary amylase
-small intestine: main cite for carbohydrate digestion and absorption
-liver: absorbed monosaccharides travel to the liver
-large intestine: some soluble fiber fermented
-rectum: very little carb…
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digestion
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breaking down of foods (to monomers)
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absorption
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the taking in of nutrients from the food
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what happens after eating carbohydrates?
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-insulin is released from the pancreas: enables glucose to enter cells, enhances production/storage of fat, glycogen, and protein, and decreases hunger
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what is the best source of energy for your body?
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carbohydrates
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what happens when you don't eat carbohydrates?
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-blood glucose decreases and the pancreas releases glucagon, which stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis
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glycogenolysis
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-glycogen break down, releases glucose into the blood (faint, tired)
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lipolysis
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-breakdown of triglycerides (fat) for energy
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ketosis
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-condition that occurs with very high blood ketone bodies
-unconsciousness or death may occur
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ketone bodies
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-form as a result of incomplete fat breakdown: poorly controlled diabetes, fasting or starving, low-carb high-protein diet
-used by certain cells for energy
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hypoglycemia
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-abnormally low blood glucose levels
-blood glucose is too low to provide cells with energy
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reactive hypoglycemia
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-blood glucose drops after eating highly refined carbohydrates, going w/o eating
-pancreas responds to the carb intake by secreting excess insulin
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diabetes mellitus
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group of serious chronic diseases characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism
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glycemic index (GI)
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method of classifying carbohydrate-rich food by comparing the rise in blood glucose after eating a portion of food that contains easily-broken down carbohydrates
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glycemic load (GL)
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grams of carbohydrates in a serving of food multiplied by the food's glycemic index
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things that alter GI and GL
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things that alter GI and GL
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high fructose corn syrup composition
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-made from corn
-55% fructose, 45% glucose
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why is high fructose corn syrup so heavily used?
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it's cheap, it mixes easily, extends shelf-life by 20%, tastes sweeter, prevents freezer burn, makes baked products brown better, results in soft textures
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what are the problems with high fructose corn syrup?
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link to obesity, (doesn't work with insulin, doesn't signal leptin), higher levels fatty liver disease, it causes flatulence and diarrhea: your body does not know what it is, fructose malabsorption, metabolic syndromes, mercury, increases triglyceride levels, increases dental activities, …
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types of lipids
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fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol
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insolubility of fat
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-insoluble in water: problem because most of your blood is water, how are you going to move the fat?
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America's lipid intake
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#2 latest country (33% of average American diet)
Mexico is #1
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major functions of lipids in the body
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-providing and storing energy (fat)
-maintaining cell membranes
-producing certain hormones
-insulating the body against cold temperatures
-cushioning the body against bumps and blows
-contributing to body contours
-absorbing fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals
-contribute t…
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triglycerides
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-composed of 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone
-95% of lipids in the body and foods
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using triglycerides for energy
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-adipose cells break down triglycerides into fatty acid and glycerol molecules before releasing them into the bloodstream
-liver can convert glycerol to glucose for another energy source
-high kcal
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sterols
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carbons arranged in rings, more complex than triglycerides and phospholipids
-cholesterol is most well known
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functions of cholesterol
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the body uses cholesterol to make: vitamin d, steroid hormones (estrogen and testosterone), bile
-makes brain work and helps with eyes
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trans fats
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-unsaturated fats with at least 1 trans double bond rather than the more common cis double bond
-BAD, they collect around the heart artery, heart disease (illegal in some places like New York)
-raise blood cholesterol levels, increase risk of heart disease
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foods highest in cholesterol
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animal products: egg yolk and liver
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hydrogenation
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-process that adds hydrogen atoms into liquid vegetable oils; making it stable so it will not spoil as easily
-goes to the arteries of the heart
-BAD
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partial hydrogenation
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-not all double bounds are hydrogenated
-body reacts the same
-BAD
-accumulates against artery, hardens in arteries like plaque on teeth
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saturated fats
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BAD FOR YOUR HEART
-trans fats
-hydrogenated fats
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essential fatty acids
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cannot be made in the body
-used to make several important compounds in the body
-2 types are: alpha-linolenic acid (omega3-DHA and EPA) and liolenic acid (omega6-AA)
-precursors (help to form) of prostaglandins
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good fats
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monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
-olive oil
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bad fats
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saturated fats
-safflower oil, canola oil, grapeseed oil
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IPHY 2420: FINAL