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IPHY 2420: FINAL EXAM
cell |
the smallest functional structure in a living organism; a human has 100 trillion |
organelles |
structures within cells that perform specialized functions; EX: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes |
tissues |
collection of similar cells that perform specialized functions |
epithelial tissue |
cells that form linings and coverings; ex: skin |
connective tissue |
cells that hold together, protect, and support organs; ex: bone, fat |
organs |
collection of tissues that perform a specific function |
systems |
collection of organs that work together to perform a major function |
homeostasis |
body trying to maintain a steady state (equilibrium) |
Respiratory System |
-main function is for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
-lungs: enable body to exchange gases, mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide
-nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs |
Cardiovascular System |
-main function is to circulate blood throughout the body
-delivering oxygen, food, water and taking away carbon dioxide and waste products
-heart, major veins and arteries, blood |
artery |
(red) delivers oxygen rich blood to cells (high pressure) |
vein |
(blue) takes away waste and carbon dioxide (low pressure) |
Lymphatic System |
-helps maintain fluid balance, absorb many fat-soluble nutrients, and defends the body against diseases
-lymph nodes, lymphatic fluid, white blood cells, spleen, thymus |
lymph nodes |
inflame to respond to fight a problem, immunity support |
Urinary System |
-main function is elimination of salts, water, and wastes; maintenance of fluid balance
-kidneys, bladder
-body filters all of its blood 300x per day |
kidneys |
filter unneeded substances from blood and help maintain proper fluid balance |
bladder |
stores urine until elimination |
kidney stress indications |
hurts to pee, pee color |
dehydration |
whole body stressor |
hydration test |
skin release test, skin does not pop back "pinch test" |
Muscular System |
enables movement to occur, and provides support and protection
-muscles |
Skeletal System |
-bones provide support, movement, and protection
-bones also store certain minerals and PRODUCE RED BLOOD CELLS |
Nervous System |
-main function is thought processes, regulation and coordination of many body activities, detection of changes in external and internal environments
-(email system) neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and throughout the body transmit information and responses by electrical and chemical signals |
neurons |
nervous system cells |
Endocrine System |
-main function is regulation and coordination of many body activities including growth, nutrient balance, and reproduction
-organs and tissues that produce hormones
-thyroid, hormones |
thyroid |
influences metabolism (how many calories you need to stay alive) |
hormones |
determine sex, chemical messengers that regulate body processes and responses |
Integumentary System |
-main function is for protection, immunity, regulation of body temperature, and vitamin D synthesis
-skin, hair, and nails |
Reproductive System |
-main function: produce children
-only system we can live without
-gonads and genitals |
Digestion System |
-main function is digestion and absorption of nutrients
-mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
-GI Tract, Bioavailability |
GI Tract |
muscular tube that extends from the mouth to the anus |
bioavailability |
extent to which digestive tract absorbs nutrients and how well the body uses them |
mouth |
where digestion begins
-mechanical & chemical digestion |
mechanical digestion |
biting and grinding actions break and mash food into smaller pieces |
chemical digestion |
saliva mixes and lubricated food
-salivary amylase and lipase begin breakdown of starch and fat |
taste buds |
specialized sensory structors on the tongue and in the lining of the mouth and throat
-5 tastes |
five tastes |
umami, sweet, sour, salty, bitter |
smell |
chemicals in food become airborne and stimulate nasal passages, contributing to sense of taste |
peristalsis |
muscular contractions that move small amounts of foods and beverages through intestinal tract |
stomach |
-gastroesophageal sphincter, chyme, mucus, pyloric sphincter
-ulcers
-BRAT
-food is here for 7-8 hours |
gastroesophageal sphincter |
-located at the end of the esophagus
-controls opening and closing of the stomach |
chyme |
mixture of gastric juice and partially digested food, very acidic |
mucus |
layer of mucus protects stomach from acid |
ulcer |
stomach mucus is not maintained, acid burns stomach, often bleed, blood in stools, caused by h.pylori |
BRAT diet |
banana, rice, apples, toast |
pyloric sphincter |
controls rate of chyme release into small intestine |
Small Intestine |
-where most nutrients are digested and absorbed
-duodenum, jejunum, ileum |
vestigial |
an organ we do not need |
Liver |
-processes and stores many nutrients
-500 functions
-makes cholesterol and bile |
Gallbladder |
stores bile that aids in fat digestion |
Pancreas |
produces and secrets many digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions |
Absorbing Nutrients |
-villi, absorptive cells |
villi |
tiny projections that line the small intestine |
absorptive cells |
remove nutrients from chyme and transfer them into blood or lymph |
Large Intestine |
-absorption of water and minerals
-colon and rectum
-feces, rectum |
feces |
form as chyme becomes semisolid |
rectum |
lower part of the large intestine where feces are stores |
macronutrients |
provide energy to the body |
the body uses proteins to make or function as... |
-new cells and many components of cells
-structures such as hair and nails
-enzymes
-lubricants
-clotting compounds
-antibodies
-compounds that help maintain fluid and pH balance
-certain hormones and neurotransmitters
-energy source (minor, under unusual conditions) |
structural proteins |
-are in cartilage, ligaments, and bones (COLLAGEN)
-are in hair, nails, and skin (KERATIN) |
contractile proteins |
enable us to move |
clotting proteins |
needed for blood clotting |
hormone proteins |
chemical messengers that regulate body processes and responses (insulin and glucagon) |
enzymes (nearly all enzymes are proteins) |
speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions without becoming part of the products |
neurotransmitters |
-proteins
-send signals from one nerve to another |
transport proteins |
oxygen and many nutrients are transported in blood by special proteins, such as ALBUMIN |
amino acids |
-monomer of protein
-20 different amino acids in human proteins |
essential amino acids |
cannot be made by the body, must be supplied by the diet (9 of the 20) |
nonessential amino acids |
can be made by the body (11 of the 20) |
legume |
-plants that produce pods with a single row of seeds
-high protein, low fat, low sugar
-soybeans, peanuts, lentils, beans |
high-quality protein (complete protein) |
-contains all 9 essential amino acids in amounts that support growth
-animal products, quinoa, processed soy, rice & beans |
low-quality protein (incomplete protein) |
-lacks or has inadequate amounts of 1 or more of the essential amino acids
-most plant foods and gelatin |
Sickle Cell Anemia |
if DNA code is faulty, the wrong amino acid may be inserted into a protein, causing detrimental effects such as defective hemoglobin
-inherited condition that affects red blood cells |
denaturation |
altering a protein's natural shape and function by exposing it to various conditions including heat, alcohol, acid, and physical agitation
-heat and raw eggs
-acidic lemon juice curdles milk
-hydrochloric stomach acid
-whipping foods |
Protein Digestion and Absorption |
-stomach: denature proteins with stomach acid and partial digestion by pepsin
-small intestine: further digestion as the pancreas secretes protein-splitting enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin
-small intestine cells: final digestion occurs within the absorption of the cells
-liver: after absorbed, amino acids enter the hepatic portal vein and travel to the liver
-rectum: very little dietary protein excreted in feces (very important) |
albumin |
protein that transports oxygen and many nutrients through the blood |
where is protein absorbed? |
small intestine |
protein turnover |
breaking down old an unneeded proteins into amino acids and recycling the amino acids |
amino acid pool |
amino acids that have not been incorporated into proteins yet |
endogenous amino acids |
amino acids from the amino acid pool |
exogenous amino acids |
amino acids from dietary sources |
positive nitrogen balance (when protein needs increase) |
-growth
-pregnancy, lactation
-recovery from illness/injury
-increased levels of the hormones insulin, testosterone, and growth hormone
-resistance exercise |
nitrogen equilibrium |
healthy adult meets protein and energy needs |
negative nitrogen balance |
-inadequate protein intake or digestive diseases that interfere with protein absorption
-increased protein losses resulting from certain kidney diseases or blood loss
-bed rest, fever, injuries, burns
-increased secretion of thyroid hormone or cortisol |
complementary protein |
rice and beans |
protein deficiency |
-uncommon in the US
-may occur in: elderly, low-income, alcoholics, anorexia nervosa, intestinal tract disorders |
Kwashiorkor disease |
-adequate energy intake, but low intake of high-quality proteins
-edema (swelling) -> boy with indent on his feet |
marasmus |
-starvation- extreme weight loss, stunted growth
-not enough calories or protein
-protein therapy |
allergy |
inflammatory response resulting when body's immune system reacts inappropriately to a substance that is typically harmless |
allergen |
the offending substance |
common signs of food allergies |
hives
-swollen itchy lips
-skin flushing
-scaly red skin (eczema)
-difficulty swallowing
-wheezing and difficulty breathing
-abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea |
common food allergies |
-protein rich foods: cows milk, eggs, peanuts, wheat, soybeans, fish & shellfish
-non-protein foods: food dies, sulfites added to wines, potatoes, shrimp |
treatments to food allergies |
-avoid them
-epi pen= epinephrine |
how are carbohydrates made? |
through photosynthesis |
simple carbohydrates monomer |
monosaccharide (sugar) |
glucose |
-primary energy source
-"blood sugar"
-dextrose |
fructose |
-fruit sugar
-levulose |
galactose |
-part of milk sugar |
disaccharides |
sugar comprised of two sugar molecules |
maltose |
glucose + glucose |
sucrose |
glucose + fructose |
lactose |
glucose + galactose |
table sugar (sucrose) |
-made from sugar cane or sugar beets
-refinement strips away vitamins and minerals |
complex carbohydrates monomer |
polysaccharides |
polysaccharides |
more than or equal to 10 monosaccharides bonded together
-storage form of carbohydrates in plants and animals
-structural component of plants in stems and leaves |
starch |
-storage form of carbohydrate in plants
-mainly in seeds, roots, and tubers |
glycogen |
-storage form of carbohydrate in humans and other animals
-stored primarily in liver and muscles |
fiber |
-most forms are complex carbohydrates that humans cannot digest
-insoluble:
-soluble: |
why are Americans so overweight? |
SUGAR |
insoluble fiber |
-cellulose/hemicelluloses
-increases fecal bulk and speeds fecal passage through GI tract
-all plants, wheat, rye, brown rice, vegetables
-lignin |
soluble fiber |
pectins, gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses
-fills you up
-delays stomach emptying, slows glucose absorption, can lower blood cholesterol
-apples, bananas, citrus fruits, carrots, oats, barley, psyllium seeds, beans, and thickeners added to foods |
lignin |
-insoluble fiber
-increases fecal bulk, may ease bowel movements
-whole grains, wheat bran |
whole grain |
-the intact, ground, cracked, or flaked, seeds of cereal grains
-must contain: fiber-rich BRAN, starchy ENDOSPERM, oily GERM |
digestion of carbohydrates |
-mouth: salivary amylase digests some starch
-stomach: acid inactivates salivary amylase
-small intestine: main cite for carbohydrate digestion and absorption
-liver: absorbed monosaccharides travel to the liver
-large intestine: some soluble fiber fermented
-rectum: very little carbohydrates excreted in the feces |
digestion |
breaking down of foods (to monomers) |
absorption |
the taking in of nutrients from the food |
what happens after eating carbohydrates? |
-insulin is released from the pancreas: enables glucose to enter cells, enhances production/storage of fat, glycogen, and protein, and decreases hunger |
what is the best source of energy for your body? |
carbohydrates |
what happens when you don't eat carbohydrates? |
-blood glucose decreases and the pancreas releases glucagon, which stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis |
glycogenolysis |
-glycogen break down, releases glucose into the blood (faint, tired) |
lipolysis |
-breakdown of triglycerides (fat) for energy |
ketosis |
-condition that occurs with very high blood ketone bodies
-unconsciousness or death may occur |
ketone bodies |
-form as a result of incomplete fat breakdown: poorly controlled diabetes, fasting or starving, low-carb high-protein diet
-used by certain cells for energy |
hypoglycemia |
-abnormally low blood glucose levels
-blood glucose is too low to provide cells with energy |
reactive hypoglycemia |
-blood glucose drops after eating highly refined carbohydrates, going w/o eating
-pancreas responds to the carb intake by secreting excess insulin |
diabetes mellitus |
group of serious chronic diseases characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism |
glycemic index (GI) |
method of classifying carbohydrate-rich food by comparing the rise in blood glucose after eating a portion of food that contains easily-broken down carbohydrates |
glycemic load (GL) |
grams of carbohydrates in a serving of food multiplied by the food's glycemic index |
things that alter GI and GL |
things that alter GI and GL |
high fructose corn syrup composition |
-made from corn
-55% fructose, 45% glucose |
why is high fructose corn syrup so heavily used? |
it's cheap, it mixes easily, extends shelf-life by 20%, tastes sweeter, prevents freezer burn, makes baked products brown better, results in soft textures |
what are the problems with high fructose corn syrup? |
link to obesity, (doesn't work with insulin, doesn't signal leptin), higher levels fatty liver disease, it causes flatulence and diarrhea: your body does not know what it is, fructose malabsorption, metabolic syndromes, mercury, increases triglyceride levels, increases dental activities, interferes with birth control effectiveness |
types of lipids |
fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol |
insolubility of fat |
-insoluble in water: problem because most of your blood is water, how are you going to move the fat? |
America's lipid intake |
#2 latest country (33% of average American diet)
Mexico is #1 |
major functions of lipids in the body |
-providing and storing energy (fat)
-maintaining cell membranes
-producing certain hormones
-insulating the body against cold temperatures
-cushioning the body against bumps and blows
-contributing to body contours
-absorbing fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals
-contribute to rich flavor, texture, and smell |
triglycerides |
-composed of 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone
-95% of lipids in the body and foods |
using triglycerides for energy |
-adipose cells break down triglycerides into fatty acid and glycerol molecules before releasing them into the bloodstream
-liver can convert glycerol to glucose for another energy source
-high kcal |
sterols |
carbons arranged in rings, more complex than triglycerides and phospholipids
-cholesterol is most well known |
functions of cholesterol |
the body uses cholesterol to make: vitamin d, steroid hormones (estrogen and testosterone), bile
-makes brain work and helps with eyes |
trans fats |
-unsaturated fats with at least 1 trans double bond rather than the more common cis double bond
-BAD, they collect around the heart artery, heart disease (illegal in some places like New York)
-raise blood cholesterol levels, increase risk of heart disease |
foods highest in cholesterol |
animal products: egg yolk and liver |
hydrogenation |
-process that adds hydrogen atoms into liquid vegetable oils; making it stable so it will not spoil as easily
-goes to the arteries of the heart
-BAD |
partial hydrogenation |
-not all double bounds are hydrogenated
-body reacts the same
-BAD
-accumulates against artery, hardens in arteries like plaque on teeth |
saturated fats |
BAD FOR YOUR HEART
-trans fats
-hydrogenated fats |
essential fatty acids |
cannot be made in the body
-used to make several important compounds in the body
-2 types are: alpha-linolenic acid (omega3-DHA and EPA) and liolenic acid (omega6-AA)
-precursors (help to form) of prostaglandins |
good fats |
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
-olive oil |
bad fats |
saturated fats
-safflower oil, canola oil, grapeseed oil |