149 Cards in this Set
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What are the relatively permanent changes from learning
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Behavior, knowledge, capability, & attitude
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Learning is
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acquired through EXPERIENCE. Infants do not learn how to walk, as basic motor skills and maturation govern every species
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The Black Box
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Stimulus goes in and out comes a response
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Do behavior scientists care about what is inside (the black box)
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NO, they aint care.
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When was classical conditioning discovered?
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Discovered by accident during saliva experiment.
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Classical Conditioning
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a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another.
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Stimulus
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any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds
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Reflex
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An involuntary response to a stimulus (eye blink to a puff of air)
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Conditioned reflex (response)
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a learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Salivate at the sight of food
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The Process of Classical Conditioning
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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Response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning (salivation, startle, contraction of pupil to light, eye blink response)
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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Stimulus that ellicits a specific unconditioned response without learning (food, loud noise, light in eye, puff of air in eye)
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a CR (Bell, buzzer, light)
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Conditioned response (CR)
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Learned response that comes to be elicited by a CS as a result of its repeated pairing with an UCS (learned reflex that is same as UCR)
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Higher- order conditioning
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Occurs when the CS are linked together to form a series of signals (steps leading to a blood draw at a clinic)
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Changing Conditioned Responses
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Extinction
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Weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS
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Spontaneous Recovery
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Reappearance of an extinguished response after exposure to the original CS following a rest period
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Generalization
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Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS
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Discrimination
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Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli
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Who initiated experiment to prove fear could be classically conditioned in 1919
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John Watson. Started emotional conditioning with Little Albert who was conditioned to be afraid of white rats and other white fluffy objects
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The Cognitive Perspective
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Who started this?
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Robert Rescorla
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What did Rescorla show us?
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-classical conditioning is not repeated pairing of the CS and the UCS- conditioning depends on whether the CS provides information that enables reliable prediction of the UCS- Used pairing of tones and shocks with rats
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What was seen in the pairing of tones and shocks
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-only the group where the tone reliably predicted the shock developed a conditioned fear response - when the tone provided no clue about the shock pairings did not lead to conditioning
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Biological Predispositions
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Smell and taste are closely associated because the smell of a particular food is a signal for its taste and the physical sensation associated with eating it (You can imagine how the fresh bread smells, tastes, and its texture by viewing the picture)
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What happens when you smell food?
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1)stomach rumbles due to digestive processes that typically follow the smell and taste of food 2) pancrease responds to counteract conditioned rise in blood sugar after a sweet taste on the tongue
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Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
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Fear Responses
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Dental visits (sound of the drill and suction, smell of the office, sight of the chair and light)
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Drug Use
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the CS associated with drug use leads individuals to seek out those substances. Counselors urge recovering addicts to avoid any stimulus cues (people, places, and things)
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Advertising
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A neutral product is associated with people, objects, or situations consumers like to elicit a positive response
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The Immune System
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Chemotherapy treatments can result in a conditioned taste aversion. Providing a "scapegoat" target can help patients maintain a proper diet.
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Pavlov's Second Signal System
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it is related to the way we learn meanings of words
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Second signal system
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a signal of signals. Seeing an apple is the first signal, naming the apple is the second signal, more intense stimuli lead to more rapid conditioning (Sticks and stones will break my bones but words can never hurt?)
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4 Tenents of Associated Theory
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Temporal Contiguity
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Can assoaicted two stimuli taht are closer together in time. The amount of time between a conditioned and unconditioned stimulus. Work best when closer in time/with taste as we can have a long association
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Intensity
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More intense stimuli are more easily assocaited
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Frequency
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How many times/long the two things are paired together. The more frequent the two things occur.
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Similarity
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The more similar the two objects are the easier it is to pair the objects. Smell & taste go with food fairly easily. Electric shock and sound/flash of light are also assimilated
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Operant Conditioning
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
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The consequences, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened. Responses that have unpleasant consequences will be avoided
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Trial-and-error learning
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Responses closely followed by "satisfying consequences" are more likely to be repeated
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Puzzle Box
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A cat had to press a pedal or pull a loop in order to escape the box and receive food. Cat learned how to open the door almost immediately after many trials.
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What is operant conditioning>
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A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to: 1) increase or decrease the frequency of a response 2) shape an entirely new response 3) based on reinforcing or punishing behaviors 4) Behavior followed by stimulus (response-> stimulus) -B.F. Skinner-
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Reinforcement
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Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probabilyt that the response will be repeated (parents give you money for earing good grades, paying bills on time avoids steep late-payment fees, earning stickers for good behavior)
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Reinforcer
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Anything that follows a response and strengthens it. Increases the probability that it will occur. What reinfoces one person doesn't always reinforce another.
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Positive Reinforcement (R+)
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Any pleasant or desirable consequence that: follows a response, increases the probability that the response will be repeated. Roughly the same as a reward: you smile as you walk down the street, people smile back at you and say nice thigns, you want to smile at everyone.
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Negative Reinforcement (R-)
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Termination of an unpleasant condition after a response. Increases the probability that the response will be repeated: Turning on air conditioning to avoid the heat, getting out of bed to turn off a leaky faucet, heroin addicts will do almost anything to get another fix and avoid the pain…
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Primary Reinforcer
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A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning. ex: food, water, and sleep.
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Secondary Reinforcer
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Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers. Ex: money, praise, applause, stickers
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Shaping
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consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (resposne) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response. Gradually, responses are guided toward the ultimate goal. ex: going to the gym and rewarding yourself with your favorite show after.
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Successive approximations
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A series of gradual steps, each of which is mroe similar to the final desired resposne. Parents shape children by praising them each time they show improvement, circus animals have learned feats, pigeons learned to bowl and play piano ((have the dog following the tennis ball on a stick to…
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Chaining
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Teaching small parts and then stringing them together (Break swimming into three parts: what are your legs doing, what are your arms doing, and how to breath (all different practices) and then one practice you bring them all together)
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Fixed Ratio
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Reinforcement given after a fixed number of correct resposnes. An effective way to maintain a high response rate. The faster people respond, the more reinforcers they receive. A migrant worker is paid for each bushel of fruit picked. When large ratios are used: people and animals tend to …
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Variable Ratio
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Reinforcement given after a varying number of correct responses. reinforcement can occur anywhere within the given ratio. If a 30-responses set is eatablished, reinforcement could occur after 10 responses and then again at 50 responses. Impossible to predict exactly which response will be…
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Fixed Interval Schedule
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Reinforcement given following a correct response after a specific time interval has passed. Workers paid by salary, rather than hourly rate. Paid $xxx.00 per month rather than by number of hours worked. Responding pauses or sharply declines immediately after reinforcement. Responding incr…
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Variable-Interval Schedule
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Reinforcement given after the first correct response that follows a varying amount of time, based on average time, reinforcers could be given a 30-,90-,45-, or even 72- second intervals rather than every 60 seconds. Maintains a steady and uniform rate of response, though typically lower t…
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Partial Reinforcement Effect
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The greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced. If parents never reward whining, the behavior will stop, if they give in occasionally, it will persist and be extremely hard to extinguish
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Reward Seeking
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Rewards are among most important influences that shape behavior, overuse of tangible rewards may undermine people's intrinsic motivation to regulate their own behavior
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Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning
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The Magnitude of Reinforcement
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as the magnitude increases, acquisition of a response is faster, rate of responding is higher, and resistance to extinction is greater
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The immediacy of reinforcement
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responses are conditioned mroe effectively when reinforcement is immediate, a little delay obscures the relationship between the behavior and the reinforcer
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The level of motivation of the learner
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when food is a reinforcer, a hungry animal learns faster than a full animal. If you are motivated to learn tennis you will practice more
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Punishment
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The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus thereby lowering the probability of a response
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Positive Punishment
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Behavior decreases from an added consequence (student stop staying up late after sleeping through an important exam)
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Negative Punishment
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Behavior decreases from removing a consequence. Usually involves the loss of something desirable. (a driver speeds less often after suffering a 6-month suspension)
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Disadvantages of Punishment
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Punishment does not extinguish an undesirable behavior. Punishment indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behavior. The person who is severely punished often becomes fearful and feels angry and hostile toward the punisher. Punishment fr…
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Making Punishment More Effective
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Timing, intensity, and consistency of application. It is most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possible. Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior. It must be applied consistently
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Learned Helplessness
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Humans who suffered painful experiences they could not avoid or escape may simply give up and react to disappointment in life by becoming inactive, withdrawn, and depressed. Ex: shocked dogs
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Shaping the behavior of animals
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shaping trains circus, zoos, animal parks, instrucual drig (animal eventually resumes instinctual behavior)
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Biofeedback
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The use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that theyc an learn, with practice, to exercise control over them
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Behavior modification
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A method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning. Autistic children and adults stopped self-injurious behaviors
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Token economy
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a program that motivates socially desriable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges
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Time Out
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Misbehaving child is removed for a short time from sources of positive reinforcement in an attempt to extinguish the unwarranted behavior
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Use conditioning to modify your own behavior
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1. Identify the target behavior
2. Gather and record baseline data
3. Plan your behavior modification program
4. Choose your reinforcers
5. Set the reinforcement conditions and begin recording and reinforcing your progress
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Cognitive Processes
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Mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations
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Learning by insight
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The sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent. Chimps who had given up in attempts to get bananas suddenly returned with a solution not accounted by trial-and-error (chimp puts water in tube/pigeon using box to reach …
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Latent Learning
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Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so
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Cognitive Maps
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Mental representation of a spatial arrangement, such as a maze. Tolman and Honzik study of rats in a maze. Rats rewarded only after 11 days for running the maze showed marked performance the next day and outperformed others that were rewarded daily.
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Rats with Latent learning
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Latent learning occurred as the rats had learned the maze but were not motivated to perform it until rewarded.
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Modeling Effect
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learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses. Teachers showing how to solve math problems on the board then followed step-by-step until accomplished
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Elicitation Effect
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Exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation. Watching someone use approrpiate silverware at an elaborate state dinner so you, too, act correctly
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Disinhibitory Effect
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Displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment. Net belching in public & copying drinking or drugs use seen in movies or TV show (as in super bad and project x)
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Inhibitory Effect
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Suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior. Slowing down when seeing other receive speeding ticket, a mother's fear of snakes can be passed on to her toddler.
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Bandura
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"Bobo Doll" and later studies confirmed that exposure to humans portraying aggression on film was the most influential in eliciting and shaping aggressive behavior
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Learning from Media
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violent video games increase aggressive behavior. Violence in music, music videos, advertising, and on the Internet also influences behavior
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Individuals who watch the most violence as children were more likely to engage in acts of violence as adults
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Electronic Games
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Games influence physiological correlates of hostile emotions and aggressive behavior- include patterns of brain activation, hormonal secretions, heart rate, and respirations. Allow adolescent and young adult males to express socially unacceptable feelings in a socially acceptable and safe…
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Effects of Multitasking Environment
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Many college students multi-task. Research on the effects are still pending. Questions researchers are examining include: The degree which the brain adapts attentional strategies, is learning degraded, do multiple streams of information induce anxiety
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Encoding
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Transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory
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Storage
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The process of keeping or maintaining information in memory
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Retrieval
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Brining to mind information that has been stored in memory
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Sensory Memory
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holds a visual image such as lightening bolt for a fraction of a second- just long enough for you to perceieve a flow of movement
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Short-term Memory (working)
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Capacity and duration: 5-9 items held for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal. Displacement: event that occurs when short-term emmory is filled to capacity, each new incoming item pushes out an existing item which is then forgotten. Chunking: grouping or organizing bits of information …
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Working Memory
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Subsystem used with: understanding information, remembering information, solving probelms, communciating with others. Maintenance rehearsal: repeating ifnormation to keep it in short term memory, leads to sotrage in long term memory of discarding it.
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Elaborative Rehearsal
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relating new information to something that is already known (elaborate upon the idea of making the barn more well known)
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Improving memory- Mnemoics
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first-letter technique (ROYGBIV) ,Rhyme, Method of Loci (Loci thinks of his house and puts new items with old items to remember them),
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Craik & Lockhart- Levels of Processing
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1) Shallow- visual
2) Medium- acoustic
3) Deep- semantic
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Long-term Memory
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The memory system that virutally unlimited capactiy that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories
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Declarative memory (explicit)
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stores facts information, and person life events. Can be brought to mind vierbally or as images also called explicit memory
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-Episodic memory
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Records events as they have been subjectively experienced
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-Semantic Memory
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Stores general knowledge or objective facts and information
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Non-Delarative Memory (Implicit)
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Encompasses motor skills, such as the expert swing of profession golfer Tiger Woods. Once learned, such mvoements can be carried out with little or no conscious effor
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Priming
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an earlier encounter increases speed or accuray at a later time
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-Motor Skills
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riding a bicycle with out thinking about it
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-Classically Conditioned Resposnes
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Feelling nauseated at the sight or smell of a certain food
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Three Types of Memory Tasks
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Recall
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Producing required information by searching memory, retrieval cue (Any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieval) (essay)
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Recognition
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Identifying material as familar or as having been encouted before. Only recquires that you recognize it not recall all the information (Multiple choise)
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Relearning
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Retention expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned
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Serial Position Effect
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For information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence
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-Primary Effect
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Tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items
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-Recency Effect
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Tendency to recall the last items in a sequence mroe readily than those in the middle
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Context-Dependent Memory
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information is easier to recall when a person is in the same environment context they were in when the learned it. Elements of the physical setting where ifnromation is learned are encoded alogn with the memory
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State-Dependent Memory
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Tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological and psychological state as when the information was encoded. Depression imprairs memory, negative recall tendecy reverse itself when depression lifts
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Reconstruction
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account of an event pieced together from a few highlights. May or may not be accurate
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Schemas
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Inegrated framwork of knowledge and assumptions about people, objects, and events. Affect how the person encodes and recals information
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Positive bias
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pleasant events are rememberd more than unpleasant events. Aids with current emotional well-being
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Flashbulb
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An extrememly vivid memory of the conditions surrounding one's first hearing the news of a surprising, shockign, or highly emotional event. Easily recalled due to high: emotionality, consequentiality, and rehearsal. Appear to be forgotten at about the same rate and ways as other kinds of …
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Eidetic imagery
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Photographic memory. rare, 5% of children. Rewrite another language they don't know
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Memory and Culture
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Stories set in own culture more easily remembered than those set in other cultures
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Eyewitness Testimony
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Highly subject to error- should be viewed with caution. Misinformation effect- mimsleading ifnromation supplied after the event confounds a witnesses memroy
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Hypnosis
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Does not improve the accurary of memory, only the confidence in what was remembered
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Infantile amnesia
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The inabilty to recall events from the first few years of life likely due to limited language and hippocampus development
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Hippocampal Reigion
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Part of the limbic system which inclues the hippocampus and underlying cortical areas. Involved in the formation of explicit memories. Transmits information to frontal lobes.
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Left frontal lobe
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active during encoding
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Right frontal lobe
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active during retrieval
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Amygdala
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emotional memories
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Cerebellum
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implicit memories (ie riding a bike)
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Long-term Potential
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an increase in the efficiency of nerural transmission at the synpases that lasts for hours or longer. Does not take place unless sending and reciving are activated at the same time by itnese stimulation. Receiving neuron must be depolarized (ready to fire) when the stimulation occurs
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Ardenal glands
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release epinephrine and norepinephirine into bloodstream
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Amygdala with emotions
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activites during emotional episodes and may explain the intensity and durabilty of flashbulb memories
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High level of stress
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hormone cortisol interferes with memory
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Estrogen
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improves working memory efficiency and the development and maintenance of synpases in the brain
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Amensia
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partial or complte loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or psycholgical cause
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Anterograde amnesia
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loss of memory of events occuring after brain injury or suger. Earlier and short term memories generally intact. Damage to hippocampus
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Retrograde amnesia
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Loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness Damage to association cortex
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Dementia
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degenerative brain processes diminsh abilty to remember and process information
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Ebbinghaus
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Found that most information is forgotten within 20 minutes after rote memorization
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Causes for forgetting
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Encoding failure
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information is not put into long-term memory
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decay theory
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memories not used will fade with time and ultimately disappear
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Interference
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Infomation or associations stored hinder the ability to rmember it
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-proactive interference
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information or expierences already stored hinder mmeory
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-retroactive interfernce
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New learning interferes with recall of previous learning
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Consolidation failure
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any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming
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motivated forgetting
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suppression is an effort to protect from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpealsnt
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Repression
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removing unpleasnt memories from one's consciousness, so that one is no longer aware that a painful event occur
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-prospective forgetting
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not remembering to do something (i.e. taking a test you don't want to take)
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PSYC 101: EXAM 1