118 Cards in this Set
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statement
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a sentence that makes a claim, has two values; true or false
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inference
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the reasoning process
expressed by an argument
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argument
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establishes support for the truth of the claim, contains premises and a conclusion
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truth value analysis
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determines if the information in the premises is accurate, correct, or true
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logical analysis
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determines strength with which the premises support the conclusion
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deductive argument
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the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, the premises make it impossible for the conclusion to be false
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inductive argument
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the premises make the conclusion probable, true premises make it improbable for the conclusion to be false
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valid deductive argument
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true premises make it impossible for the conclusion to be false. if the premises are true the conclusion has to be true
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invalid deductive argument
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even if the premises are true, it is still possible for the conclusion to be false
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counterexample to a statement
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provides evidence that a statement is false
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counterexample to an argument
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shows that true premises do not make the conclusion necessarily true
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strong inductive argument
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true premises make it probable that the conclusion is true
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weak inductive argument
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true premises don't make it probable that the conclusion is true
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cogent inductive argument
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the argument is strong and the premises are true
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uncognet inductive argument
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argument is weak and premises are false
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Intension
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The qualities or attributes that a term connotes
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Extension
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The set of objects to which a term refers.
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increasing intention
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in a sequence of terms, each connotes more attributes than the previous term
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increasing extension
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in a sequence of terms, each term develops a set of objects with more members than the previous term
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Intensional Definition
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defining a term by stating the properties a thing must possess for the term to apply to it
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synonymous definition
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assigns a meaning to a term by providing another term with the same meaning
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operational definition
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define a term by specifying a measurement procedure
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word origin definition
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a meaning is assigned to a term by investigating its origin
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Definition by Genus and Difference
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assign a meaning to a term (the species) by establishing a genus and combining it with the attribute that distinguishes the members of that species
ex: "offspring" = genus / "daughter" = difference
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extensional definition
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assigns meaning to a term by indicating the class members denoted by the term
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ostensive definition
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involves demonstrating the term
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stipulative definitions
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introduces new meaning to a term or symbol
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lexical definition
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a definition based on the common use of a word, term, or symbol
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functional definition
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specifies the purpose of use of the objects denoted by the term
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Precising Definition
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a definition intended to reduce the vagueness of a word
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theoretical definition
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assigns meaning to a term by providing an understanding of how the term fits into a general theory
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persuasive definition
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assigns meaning to a term with the direct purpose of influencing attitudes or opinions
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convergent diagram
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reveals the occurrence of independent premises
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independent premises
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when the falisity of either premise would not nullify any support the others would give to the conclusion
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linked diagram
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reveal the occurrence of dependent premises
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dependent premises
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premises that work together to support a conclusion
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divergent diagram
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shows a single premise supporting independent conclusions
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serial diagram
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shows that a conclusion from one argument is a premise in a second argument
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enthymes
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arguments with missing premises, conclusions, or both
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formal fallacy
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a logical error in a deductive argument that occurs in the form or structure of an argument
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informal fallacy
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a mistake in reasoning that occurs in ordinary language, including mistakes due to relevance, unwarranted assumptions and ambiguity or diversion
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argument against the person
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when a claim is rejected based on alleged character flaws, negative stereotype, or life circumstances of the person making the claim
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missing the point
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when the premises that seem to lead logically to one conclusion are used instead to try and support another conclusion
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appeal to unqualified authority
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relies on the opinions of people who have no expertise on the issue at hand
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begging the question
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assumes as evidence in the premises the very thing that it attempts to prove in the conclusion
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complex question
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a single questions that actually contains multiple, hidden parts
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biased sample
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uses a non-representative sample as support for a statistical claim about an entire population
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accident
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when a generalization is inappropriately applied to the case at hand
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hasty generalization
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a generalization created on the basis of a few instances
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misleading precision
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a claim that appears to be statistically significant, but is not
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false dillema
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occurs when two choices are asserted, each leading to an unwanted result, with failure to acknowledge that other possibilites exist
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coincidence
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results from the accidental or chance connection between two events
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post hoc fallacy
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involves a short term pattern noticed after the fact
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common cause fallacy
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occurs when one event is assumed to cause another event, when both events are the result of a common cause
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slippery slop
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attempts to make a final event the inevitable outcome of an initial act, through a series of allegedly inevitable acts
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equivocation
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the intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of words or phrases in an argument
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amphiboly
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ambiguity that arises when a poorly constructed statement muddles the intended meaning
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compostion
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the mistaken transfer of an attribute of the parts of an object to the object as a whole
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division
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the mistaken transfer of an attribute of an object as a whole to its individual parts
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straw man fallacy
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occurs when someones written or spoken words are out of context, purposefully distorting the original argument
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equivocation
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the intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of words or phrases in an argument
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red herring fallacy
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occurs when someone completely ignores an opponents position and changes the subject
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value judgement
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a claim that a particular human action or object has some degree of importance, worth, or desirability
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perscriptive
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'to offer advice'
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normative
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establishing standards for correct moral behavior; rules of conduct
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emotivism
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a theory that asserts that moral value judgements are merely expressions of our attitudes or emotions
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consequentialism
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a class of moral theories in which the moral value of any human action or behavior is determined exclusively by its outcomes
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teleogy
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the philosophical belief that the value of an action or object can only be determined by looking at the purpose or the end of the action or object
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formal fallacy
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a logical error that occurs in the form or structure of an argument and is restricted to deductive arguments
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fallacies of relevance
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occur whenever irrelevant premises are offered in support of a conclusion
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argument against the person
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occurs when a claim is rejected or judged to be false based on alleged character flaws of the person making the claim
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tu quoque
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a variety of the ad hominem fallacy that is distinguished by the specific attempt of one person to avoid the issue at hand by claiming the other person is a hypocrite
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appeal to the people
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the avoidance of objective evidence in favor of an emotional response defeats the goal of a rational investigation of truth
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appeal to pity
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a specific kind of emotional plea that relies solely on a sense of pity for support
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appeal to force
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a threat of harmful consequences used to force acceptance of a course of action that would otherwise be unacceptable
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missing the point
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occurs when premises that seem to lead logically to one conclusion are used instead to support an unexpected conclusion
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appeal to unqualified authority
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occurs when an argument that relies on the opinions of people who have no expertise, training, or knowledge relevant to the issue at hand
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fallacies of unwarranted assumption
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assume the truth of some unproved or questionable claim
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begging the question
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occurs when an argument assumes as evidence in the premise the very thing that it attempts to prove in the conclusion
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false dichotomy
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occurs when it is assumed that only two choices are possiblle. when in fact others exist
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fallacy of ambiguity or diversion
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occurs when the meanings of terms or phrases are changed within the argument or when our attention is purposely diverted from the issue at hand
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egoism
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the basic principle that everyone should act in order to maximize his or her own individual pleasure or happiness
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utilitarianism
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it can be summed up in the famous dictum 'the greatest good for the greastest number'
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universalizable
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when the same principles hold for all people at all times
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deontology
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the theory that duty to others is the first and foremost moral consideration
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categorical imperative
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the basic idea that your actions or behavior toward others should always be such that you would want everyone to act in the same manner
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situation ethics
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although there can be general, even objective, moral rules, we should not rigidly apply those rules to every possible situation
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relativism
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first, all moral judgments are determined by an individual's personal beliefs or by a society's beliefs toward actions on behavior. Second, there are no objective or universal moral value judgements
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naturalistic moral principle
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since it is natural for humans to desire pleasure, and to avoid pain, human behavior ought to be directed to these two ends
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naturalistic fallacy
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value judgments cannot be logically derived from statements of fact
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casual network
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a set of conditions that bring about an effect
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normal state
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the historical information regarding an object
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abnormal state
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a drastic change in the normal state regarding an object
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precipitating causes
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the object or event directly involved in bringing about an effect
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remote cause
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something that is connected to the precipitating cause by a chain of events
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method of agreement
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the method that looks at two or more instances of an event to see what they have in common
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A-proposition
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All S are P
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I proposition
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Some S are P
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E proposition
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No S are P
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O proposition
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Some S are not P
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universal affirmative
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A proposition
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universal negative
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E proposition
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particular affirmative
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I proposition
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particular negative
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O proposition
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quantifieer
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'all' 'no' 'some'
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copula
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'are' 'are not'
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distributed
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if a categorical proposition asserts something very definitive about every member of a class
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undistributed
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if a proposition does not assert something very definite about every member of a class
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opposition
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when two standard-form categorical propositions refers to the same subject and predicate classes, but differ in quality, quantity, or both
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contradictories
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pairs of propositions in which one is the negation of the other
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contraries
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A and E
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subcontraries
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I and O
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contradictories
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A and O, I and E
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syllogism
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a deductive argument that has exactly two premises and a conclusion
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categorical syllogism
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a syllogism constructed entirely of categorical propositions
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minor term
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the subject of a categorical syllogism
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major term
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the predicate of the conclusion of a categorical syllogism
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logical operators
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special symbols that can be used as part of ordinary language statements
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PHIL 1102: FINAL