172 Cards in this Set
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psychology
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the scientific investigation of mental processes and behavior
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biopsychology
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the field that examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion, and stress; also called behavioral neuroscience
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localization of function
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the extent to which different parts of the brain control different aspects of functioning
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psychological anthropologists
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people who study psychological phenomena in other cultures by observing the way the natives behave in their daily lives
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cross-cultural psychology
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the field that attempts to test psychological hypotheses in different cultures
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introspection
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the method used by Wundt and other structuralists in which trained subjects verbally reported everything that went through their minds when presented with a stimulus or task; more generally, refers to the process of looking inward at one's own mental contents or process
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structuralism
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an early school of thought in which psychology developed by Edward Titchener, which attempted to use introspection as a method for uncovering the basic elements of consciousness and the way they combine with each other into ideas
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functionalism
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an early school of thought in psychology influenced by Darwinian theory that looked at explanations of psychological processes in terms of their role, or function, in helping the individual adapt to the environment
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paradigm
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a broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community to make sense out of a domain of experience
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perspectives
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broad ways of understanding psychological phenomena, including theoretical propositions, shared metaphors, and accepted methods of observation
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psychodynamics
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a view, analogous to dynamics among physical forces, according to which psychological forces such as wishes, fears, and intentions have a direction and an intensity
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psychodynamic perspectives
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the perspective initiated by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the dynamic interplay of mental forces
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falsifiability criterion
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the ability of a theory to be proven wrong as a means of advancing science
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behavioral perspective
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the perspective pioneered by John Watson and B.F. Skinner that focuses on the relation between observable behaviors and environmental events or stimuli; also called behaviorism
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cognition
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thought and memory
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cognitive perspective
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a psychological perspective that focuses on the way people perceive, process, and retrieve information
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information processing
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the transformation, storage, and retrieval of environmental inputs through thought and memory
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nature-nurture controversy
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the question the degree to which inborn biological processes or environmental events determine human behavior
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evolutionary perspective
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the viewpoint, built on Darwin's principle of natural selection, which argues that human behavioral proclivities must be understood in the context of their evolutionary and adaptive significance
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natural selection
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a theory proposed by
Darwin which states that natural forces select traits in organisms that help them adapt to their environment
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adaptive traits
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a term applied to traits that help organisms adjust to their environment
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ethology
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the field that studies animal behavior from a biological and evolutionary perspective
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sociobiology
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a field that explores possible evolutionary and biological bases of human social behavior
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evolutionary psychologists
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psychologists who apply evolutionary thinking to a wide range of psychological phenomena
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behavioral genetics
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a field that examines the genetic and environmental bases of differences among individuals in psychological traits
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reproductive success
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the capacity to survive and reproduce offspring
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inclusive fitness
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the notion that natural selection favors organisms that survive, reproduce, and foster the survival and reproduction of their kin
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theory
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a systematic way of organizing and explaining observations
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hypothesis
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a tentative belief or educated guess that purports to predict or explain the relationship between two or more variables
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variables
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a phenomenon that changes across circumstances or varies among individuals
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continuous variables
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a variable that can be placed on a continuum from none or little to much
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categorical variable
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a variable comprised of groupings, classifications, or categories
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standardized procedures
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procedures applied uniformly to participants that minimize unintended variation
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population
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a group of people or animals of interest to a researcher from which a sample is drawn
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representative
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a sample that reflects characteristics of the population as a whole
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sample
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a subgroup of a population likely to be representative of the population as a whole
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participants
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the individuals who participate in a study; also called subjects
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generalizability
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the applicability of a study's findings to the entire population of interst
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internal validity
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the extent to which a study is methodologically adequate
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external validity
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the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to situations outside the laboratory
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experimenter's dilemma
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the trade-off between internal and external validity
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measure
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a concrete way of assessing a variable
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reliability
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a measure's ability to produce consistent results
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test-retest reliability
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tendency of a test to yield relatively similar scores for the same individual over time
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internal consistency
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a type of reliability that assesses whether the items in a test measure the same construct
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interrater reliability
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a measure of the similarity with which different raters apply a measure
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validity
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the extend to which a test measures the construct it attempts to assess or a study adequately addresses the hypothesis it attempts to assess
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face validity
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the degree to which a measure appears what it purports to measure
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construct validity
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the degree to which a measure actually assesses what it claims to measure
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criterion validity
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the degree to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among groups on the basis of certain behaviors or responses
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error
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the part of a participant's score on a test that is unrelated to the true score
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descriptive research
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research methods that cannot unambiguously demonstrate cause and effect, including case studies, naturalistic observation survey research, and correlational methods
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case study
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in-depth observation of one subject or a small group of subjects
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naturalistic observation
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the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting
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survey research
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research asking a large sample of participants questions, often about attitudes or behaviors, using questionnaires, or interviews
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interviews
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a research tool in which the investigator asks the participant questions
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questionnaires
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research tools in which the investigator asks participants to respond to a written list of questions or items
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random sample
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a sample of participants selected from the population in a relatively arbitrary manner
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stratified random sample
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a sample selected to represent subpopulations proportionately, randomizing only within groups (such as age or race)
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mean
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the statistical average of the scores of all participants in a measure
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median
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the score that falls in the middle of the distribution of scores, with half of the participants scoring below it and half above it
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mode
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the most common or most frequent score or value of a variable observed in a sample; also known as modal score
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variability of scores
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the extent to which participants tend to vary from each other in their scores on a measure
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range
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a measure of variability that represents the difference between the highest and the lowest value on a variable obtained in a sample
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standard deviation
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the amount that the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample on a measure
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experimental research
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a research design in which investigators manipulate some aspect of a situation and examine the impact of this manipulation on the way participants respond
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independent variables
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the variables an experimenter manipulates or whose effects the experimenter assesses
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dependent variables
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participants' responses in a study, hypothesized to depend on the influence of the independent variables
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conditions
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values or versions of the independent variable that vary across experimental groups
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operationalizing
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turning an abstract concept or variable into a concrete form that can be defined by some set of operations or actions
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control group
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participants in an experiment who receive a relatively neutral condition to serve as a comparison group
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demand characteristics
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cues in the experimental situation that reveal the experimenter's purpose
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blind studies
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studies in which participants are kept unaware of, or "blind" to, important aspects of the research
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placebo effect
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a phenomenon in which an experimental population produces an effect because participants believe it will produce an effect
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single-blind study
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a study in which participants are kept blind to crucial information, notably about the experimental condition in which they have never been placed
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double-blind study
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a study in which both participants and researchers are blind to the status of participants
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confounding variable
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a variable that could produce effects that are confused, or confounded, with the effects of the independent variable
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descriptive statistics
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numbers that describe the data from a study in a way that summarizes their essential features
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inferential statistics
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procedures for assessing whether the results obtained with a sample are likely to reflect characteristics of the population as a whole
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quai-experimental designs
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research designs that employ the logic of experimental methods but lack absolute control over variables
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probability value
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the probability that obtained findings were accidental or just a matter of chance; also called p-value
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correlational research
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research that assesses the degree to which two variables are related, so that knowing the value of one can lead to prediction of the other
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correlate
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in research, to assess the extent to which the measure of one variable predicts the measure of a second variable
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correlation coefficient
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an index of the extent to which two variables are related
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positive correlation
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a relation between two variables in which the higher one is, the higher the other tends to be
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negative correlation
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a relation between two variables in which the higher one is, the lower the other tends to be
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correlation matrix
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a table presenting the correlation among several variables
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nervous system
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the interacting network of nerve cells that underlies all psychological activity
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neuron
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cell in the nervous system
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sensory neurons
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neurons that transmit information from sensory cells in the body, called receptors, to the brain
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motor neurons
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neurons that transmit commands from the brain to the glands or musculature of the body, typically through the spinal cord
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interneurons
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neurons that connect other neurons to each other; found only in the brain and spinal cord
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dendrites
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branchlike extensions of the neuron that receive information from other cells
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cell body
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the part of the neuron that includes a nucleus containing the genetic material of the cell (the chromosomes) as well as other microstructures vital to cell functioning
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axon
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the long extension from the cell body of a neuron through which electrical impulses pass
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myelin sheath
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a tight coat of cells composed primarily of lipids, which serves to isolate the axon from chemical or physical stimuli that might interfere with the transmission of nerve impulses and speeds neural transmission
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glial cells
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origin of the myelin sheath
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terminal buttons
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structures at the end of the neuron that receive nerve impulses from the axon and transmit signals to adjacent cells
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synapse
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the place at which the transmission of information between neurons occurs
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resting potential
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condition in which the neuron is not firing
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graded potentials
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a spreading voltage change that occurs when the neural membrane receives a signal from another cell
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action potential
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a temporary shift in the polarity of the cell membrane, which leads to the firing of a neuron
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neurotransmitters
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chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another
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receptors
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protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane that pick up neurotransmitters
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glutamate
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one of the most widespread neurotransmitters in the nervous system, which largely plays an excitatory role
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GABA
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acronym for gamma-aminobutryic acid, one of the most widespread neurotransmitters in the nervous system, which largely plays an inhibitory role in the brain
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dopamine
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a neurotransmitter with wide-ranging effects in the nervous system, involved in thought, feeling, motivation, and behavior
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Parkinson's disease
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a disorder characterized by uncontrollable tremors, repetitive movements, and difficulty in both initiating behavior and stopping movements already in progress
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serotonin
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a neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, eating, arousal, and pain
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SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
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a class of antidepressant medications, including Prozac, that block the presynaptic membrane from taking back serotonin and hence leave it acting longer in the synapse
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acetylcholine (ACh)
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a neurotransmitter involved in muscle contractions, learning, and memory
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endorphins
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chemicals in the brain similar to morphine that elevate mood and reduce pain
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central nervous system
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the brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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a component of the nervous system that includes neurons that travel to and from the central nervous system; includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
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somatic nervous system
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that consists of sensory and motor neurons that transmit sensory information and control intentional actions
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that serves visceral or internal bodily structures connected with basic life processes, such as the beating of the heart and breathing; consists of two parts: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
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sympathetic nervous system
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a branch of the autonomic nervous system, typically activated in response to threats to the organism, which readies the body for fight-or-flight reactions
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parasympathetic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system involved in conserving and maintaining the body's energy resources
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
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a record of the electrical activity toward the surface of the brain, used especially in sleep research and diagnoses of epilepsy
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neuroimaging techniques
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methods for studying the brain that use computer programs to convert the data taken from brain-scanning devices into visual images
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computerized axial tomography (CAT)
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a brain-scanning technique used to detect lesions
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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brain-scanning technique
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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a computerized brain-scanning technique that allows observation of the brain in action
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functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)
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a brain-scanning technique used as an individual carries out tasks
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spinal cord
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the part of the central nervous system that transmits information from sensory neurons to the brain and from the brain to motor neurons that initiate movement; it is also capable of reflex actions
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hindbrain
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the part of the brain above the spinal cord that includes the medulla, cerebellum, and parts of the reticular formation
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medulla oblongata (medulla)
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an extension of the spinal cord, essential to life controlling such vital physiological functions as heartbeat, circulation, and respiration
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reticular formation
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a diffuse network of neurons that extends from the lowest parts of the medulla in the hindbrain to the upper end of the midbrain, serving to maintain consciousness, regulate arousal levels, and modulate the activity of neurons throughout the central nervous system
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cerebellum
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a large bulge in the dorsal or back area of the brain, responsible for the coordination of smooth, well-sequenced movements as well as maintaining equilibrium and regulating postural reflexes
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midbrain
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the section of the brain above the hindbrain involved in some auditory and visual functions, movement, and conscious arousal and activation
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tectum
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a midbrain structure involved in vision and hearing
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tegmentum
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midbrain structure that includes a variety of neural structures, related mostly to movement and conscious arousal and activation
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subcortical forebrain
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structures within the cerebrum, such as the basal ganglia and limbic system, that lie below the cortex
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hypothalamus
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the brain structure, situated directly below the the thalamus, involved in the regulation of eating, sleeping, sexual activity, movement, and emotion
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thalamus
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a structure located deep in the center of the brain that acts as a relay station for sensory information, processing it and transmitting it to higher brain centers
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limbic system
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subcortical structures responsible for emotional reactions, many motivational processes, and aspects of memory
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amygdala
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a brain structure associated with the expression of rage, fear, and calculation of the emotional significance of a stimulus
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hippocampus
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a structure in the limbic system involved in the acquisition and consolidation of new information in memory
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basal ganglia
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a set of structures, located near the thalamus and hypothalamus, involved in the control of movement and in judgements that require minimal conscious thought
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cerebral cortex
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the many-layered surface of the cerebrum, which allows complex voluntary movements, permits subtle discriminations among complex sensory patters and makes possible symbolic thinking
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primary areas
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areas of the cortex involved in sensory functions and in the direct control of motor movements
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association areas
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the areas of cortex involved in putting together perceptions, ideas, and plans
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cerebral hemispheres
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the two halves of the cerebrum
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corpus callosum
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a band of fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain
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occipital lobes
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brain structures located in the rear portion of the cortex, involved in vision
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parietal lobes
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brain structures located in front of the occipital lobes, involved in a number of functions, including the sense of touch and the experience of one's own body in space and in movement
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somatosensory cortex
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the primary area of the parietal lobes, located behind the central fissure, which receives sensory information from different sections of the body
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frontal lobes
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brain structures involved in coordination of movement, attention, planning, social skills, conscience, abstract thinking, memory, and aspects of personality
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motor cortex
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the primary zone of the frontal lobes responsible for control of motor behavior
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Broca's area
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a brain structure located in the left frontal lobe at the base of the motor cortex, involved in the movements of the mouth and tongue necessary for speech production and in the use of grammar
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temporal lobes
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brain structures located in the lower side portion of the cortex that are important in audition (hearing) and language
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Wernicke's area
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a brain structure located in the left temporal lobe, involved in language and comprehension
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lateralized
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localized on one or the other side of the brain
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split brain
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the condition that results when the corpus callosum has been surgically cut, blocking communication between the two cerebral hemispheres
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gene
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the unit of hereditary transmission
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chromosomes
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strands of DNA arranged in pairs
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alleles
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forms of a gene
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homozygous
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the two alleles are the same
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heterozygous
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the two alleles are different
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incomplete dominance
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the heterozygous state is intermediate between the recessive and the dominant alleles
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linkage studies
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method used to locate particular genes
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degree of relatedness
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the probability that two people share any particular gene
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monozygotic twins
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twins identical in their genetic makeup, having developed from the union of the same sperm and egg
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dizygotic twins
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fraternal twins who, like other siblings, share only about half of their genes, having developed from the union of two sperm with two separate eggs
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heritability coefficient
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the statistic that quantifies the degree to which a trait is heritable
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heritability
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the extent to which an individual differences in phenotype are determined by genetic factors, or genotype
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evolution
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examines changes in genetic frequencies over several generations
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evolutionary theory
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the viewpoint, built on Darwin's principle of natural selection, that argues that human behavioral proclivities must be understood in the context of their evolutionary and adaptive significance
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language acquisition device
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the prewired, innate mechanism that allows for the acquisition of language; hypothesized by Noam Chomsky
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reflexes
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behaviors elicited automatically by environmental stimuli
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cerebrum
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the "thinking" center of the brain, which includes the cortex and subcortical structures such as the basal ganglia and limbic system
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cortex
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the many-layered surface of the cerebrum, which allows complex voluntary movements, permits subtle discrimination among complex sensory patters, and makes possible symbolic thinking
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PSY 1010:Exam 1