149 Cards in this Set
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Chlorophyll a and b
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Two different types of pigment molecules that absorb the light energy used to drive photosynthesis.
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Carotenoids
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Often the major pigment found in flowers. This what gives the leaves in autumn that orange and red color. Chlorophyll often masks these in leaves.
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Inductive Resonance
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Energy gets successively transferred to a neighboring molecule by a process known as this.
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Oxidation
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An Oxygen was gained. PSII does this to oxygen, thereby producing O2
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Light-harvesting complex
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The role of this is to directly absorb photons of light. These are in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.
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Photophosphorylation
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The synthesis of ATP in chloroplasts is achieved by a chemiosmotic mechanism called this.
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Cytochrome complex
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This catalyzes the transfer of electrons from PQ to PC.
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Chemiosmosis
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A process for making ATP in which energy is stored in an ion electrochemical gradient is used to make ATP from ADP and Pi.
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Reduction
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A process that involved the addition of electrons to an atom or molecule.
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Melvin Calvin
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This man discovered the Calvin Cycle
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Carbon Fixation
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CO2 is incorporated into a 5 carbon sugar known as RuBP. Carbon has been removed from the atmosphere and fixed into an organic molecule that is not a gas.
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Rubisco
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The enzyme that catalyzes CO2 being incorporated into an organic molecule.
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First
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This is the blank law of thermodynamics which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can however be transformed from one type to another.
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Second
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This the blank law of thermodynamics which states that entropy always increases.Transfer or transformation of energy from one form to another always results in an increase of entropy of degree of disorder of a system
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Energy
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The capacity to do work
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Free energy
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The amount of energy that is available to do work as a result of an energy transformation. There is always less than 100% of original amount of energy.
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Spontaneous
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Exergonic reactions are....Meaning it occurs without being driven by the input of energy
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Exergonic
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This type of reaction has a negative free energy charge. This means that energy was released.
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Endergonic
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This type of reaction requires an external input of energy. ENERGY REQUIRED. NOT SPONTANEOUS. Positive delta G
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Coupled reaction
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At times, if a cell is combines an endergonic reaction with an exergonic reaction to conserve energy and account for a negative delta G, this will happen. Endergonic can occur spontaneously if net free charge for both processes combined is negative.
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Enzymes
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Biological catalysts that facility biochemical reactions. Protein catalysts that function in speeding up metabolic reactions.
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Ribozymes
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RNA molecules with catalytic properties, can join amino acids, but function in RNA splicing, T-RNA biosynthesis, viral replication
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Consumed
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Enzymes are NOT blank in a reaction. They cause a reaction to move forward that would've already occurred (at a slower rate) without them.
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Different
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Enzymes catalyze reactions via a pathway blank from the non-enzymatic pathway (new reaction mechanism)
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Bi-directional
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All enzyme-catalyzed reactions are
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Reducing
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Enzymes speed up the rate of reactions by blank the activation energy required to make each reaction process, which increases the probability that each reaction WILL proceed.
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Activation Energy
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The minimum amount of energy required as input to cause reaction to go. Energy in the form of heat causes molecules to crash into each other. Reactant must be in correct orientation and have sufficient kinetic energy to react. Anything above -273.15 degrees celsius will have thermal heat.
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Active site
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Location on the enzyme where the reaction actually takes place.
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Substrate
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Reactants that bind to active site
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Enzyme-substrate complex
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Formed when enzyme and substrate bind
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Products
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Resulting molecule(s) of reaction
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Induced fit
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Occurs when the enzyme undergoes a conformational change that causes the substrate to bind more tightly to the enzyme.
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Lock and key
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The recognition of the substrate resembles this. Because of the 3-D composition, there is a high degree of specificity in which enzymes recognize the active site
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High
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A blank substrate concentration makes it more likely that an enzyme will run into a substrate.
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Affinity
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Degree of attraction between an enzyme and its substrate
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Km (1/2 of Vmax)
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(Also known as Michaelis constant).Measure of the substrate concentration. This is a good indicator of how well the enzyme binds to the substrate.
๎๎๎
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Vmax
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The maximum reaction rate when the substrate concentration is saturated
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Lower
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A blank Km, means the enzymes bind and hold on to the substrate better, thus increasing probability of reaction going forward. Also means that enzymes have a high affinity for their substrates.
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Higher
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A blank Km, means that the enzyme binds to the substrate more weakly (butter finger enzyme), thus decreasing the probability of reaction going forward. Lower affinity for their substrates.
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Competitive inhibitor
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Molecules that bind noncovalently to the active site of an enzyme and inhibit the ability of the substrate to bind. Km increases because a higher concentration of substrate is needed to achieve the same rate of the chemical reaction. Affects of this thing can be overcome. Vmax remains theโฆ
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Noncompetitive inhibitor
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This binds noncovalently to an enzyme at a location outside of the active site and inhibits the enzyme's function at a different site. Km remains the same, Vmax decreases.
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Electronegativity
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How much an atom wants an electron.
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Nonpolar covalent bond
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If two atoms have the same electronegativity we call it this.
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Polar covalent bonds
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When two atoms with different electronegativities form a covalent bond, the shared electrons are more likely to be closer to the nucleus of the atom of higher electronegativity than to the atom of lower electronegativty. Partial positive and a partial negative. Shared electrons are more lโฆ
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Neutral
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An entire atom has BLANK electric charge
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Valence electrons
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Electrons in the outer shell that are available to combine with other atoms are called this......
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Atomic number
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Number of protons and electrons in atom an equals the
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O, C, H, N
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The most abundant elements in living organisms
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Carbon
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This element as an atomic mass of 12 Daltons
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Isotopes
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Element that differs in the number of neutrons
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Radioisotope
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Unstable elements, emits particles or radiation
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Hydrogen bonds
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Weak electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded an electronegative atom with another electronegative atom with another electronegative atom in the same or another molecule. Weak bonds, form and break easily. However, can form strong bonds overall.
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NADPH
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2 electron-carrier that supplies reducing power required for "reducing" CO2. Supplies energy to turn 1, 3 BPG into G3P
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ATP
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This molecule supplies energy to make 3PGA into 1,3 BPG
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3PGA
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End result of carbon fixation. 3-phosphoglycerate
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G3p
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End result of reduction. Triose phosphate
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Reduction
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Addition of a hydrogen or removal of an oxygen
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Large
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The blank subunits of RUBISCO are encoded by the chloroplast genome
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Small
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The blank subunits of RUBISCO are encoded by the nuclear genome
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Oxygenic
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Green plants, algae and cyanobacteria are this type of phototroph
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Anoxygenic
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Green and purple non-sulfur bacteria, green and purple sulfur bacteria and heliobacteria are this type of phototroph
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Prosthetic groups
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Small molecules permanently attached to the enzyme
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Cofactor
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Usually inorganic ion that temporarily binds to enzyme
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Coenzyme
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Organic molecule that participates in reaction but left unchanged after the reaction is completed
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Carboxylation
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Under high concentrations of CO2, this is favored by RUBISCO (carboxylase). This method results with the Calvin Cycle
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Photorespiration
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Favored when CO2 is low and O2 is high. This happens during the day and reduces the rate of net carbon gain of a leaf due to loss of previously fixed CO2. This also reduces the rate at which plants grow since plants require carbon to grow. THIS PRODUCES OXYGEN. Involves the chloroplast, pโฆ
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Photosynthesis
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This is the formula for .... CO2 + H2O --> 3C sugar and O2
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C3
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The reason why this type of plant is called this is because the first stable product of CO2 is 3-PGA, a 3-Carbon molecule
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Oxygenation
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Under high concentration of O2, this is favored by RUBISCO (oxygenase). This method results in photorespiration.
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Cool, CO2
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Blank/moist conditions promote stomatal opening resulting in increased diffusion of blank from atmosphere to chloroplast. Increase the CO2/O2 ratio in the stroma.
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Solubility of CO2
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Blank of blank in aqueous solutions (the stroma) is greater at lower temperatures. Increase the CO2/O2 ratio in the stroma.
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Photosynthetic
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When a higher CO2/O2 ratio is in the stroma, this promotes carboxylation and reduces oxygenation by RUBISCO, hence blank rate increases.
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Hot, CO2
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Blank/dry conditions promote stomatal closing resulting in reduced diffusion of blank from atmosphere to chloroplast. Closed stomata inhibit cooling of leaves by transpiration. Reduces the CO2/O2 ratio in the stroma
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Solubility of CO2
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Blank of blank in aqueous solutions (the stroma) is lower at high temperatures. Reduces the CO2/O2 ratio in the stroma
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Photosynthetic
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A lower CO2/O2 ratio in the stroma reduces carboxylation and promotes oxygenation by RUBISCO, hence blank decreases.
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Photosynthetic rate
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The rate at which something can produce photosynthetic products. This would be the plant growing for example. The plant grows when it gets energy from photosynthesis.
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C4
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First stable product of atmospheric CO2 fixation is a 4-Carbon molecule. This type of plant is a product of evolution to live in a hot/dry environment. Plants that open their stomata during the day have extremely reduced rates of photorespiration. Corn, sugarcane, sorghum.
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CAM
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This type of plant is a product of evolution to live in a hot/dry environment. Plants that open their stomata during the night when evaporative demand is low. They have reduced rates of photorespiration and extremely low rates of water loss. CO2 fixed by PEP Carboxylase, converted to malaโฆ
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Mesophyll cells
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In these cells in C4 plants, CO2 is fixed into a 4-carbon organic acid (OAA), catalyzed by PEP Carboxylase which does not recognize O2. OAA is then converted into Malate.
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Bundle-sheath cells
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Malate diffuses to BSC from MC through the plasmodesmata. Malate breaks down to a C3 molecule and CO2. CO2 is used by the Calvin Cycle in the chloroplasts of these types of cells. CO2 concentration is really high. Rubisco is used here. Reduces photorespiration to a minimum, increases CO2/โฆ
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Plasmodesmata
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A membrane line, ER containing channel that connects the cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells.
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Carbon
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Is the building block of all living matter
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Temporal separation
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Synthesis of C4 molecule and the Calvin Cycle occur at different times in CAM plants and it is called this.
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Ion
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An atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Now has a net electric charge.
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Water
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Life as we know it requires
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Solutes
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Substances dissolved in a liquid are known as this
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Solvent
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The liquid in which the substances are dissolved in
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Water
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The solvent for chemical reactions
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Solution
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Solutes dissolve in a solvent to form this
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Water
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Ions and molecules that contain polar covalent bonds will dissolve in
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Hydrophillic
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Water-loving. Readily dissolve in water.
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Hydrophobic
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Water-fearing. Do not readily dissolve in water. Non polar molecules like hydrocarbon.
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Amphipatic molecule
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Have both polar or ionized regions at one or more sites and non polar regions at other sites.
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Water is extremely stable as a
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Water is extremely stable as a
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Concentration
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Amount of a solute dissolved in a unit volume of solution. 1 gram of NaCl was dissolved in 1 liter of water =1g/L
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Molarity
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Number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 L of water. 1 mole of a substance is the amount of the substance in grams equal to its atomic or molecular mass.
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Colligative properties
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Relates to concentration of dissolved solute particles. Some solutes lower freezing point or raises above 100. FOR WATER
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Hydrolysis
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Water used to break apart molecules. Breakdown of macromolecules into monomers.
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Dehydration
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Removal of water to build larger molecules. Formation of organic macromolecules from monomers.
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Incompressible
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Water provides force or support and is called this
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Excretion
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Water removes toxic waste components and is called this
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Heat removal
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Evaporative cooling is called this
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Cohesion
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Phenomenon of water molecule attracting each other. Water exhibits this strongly due to hydrogen bonding
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Adhesion
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Refers to the ability of water to be attracted to a surface that is not electrically neutral. I.e. paper towel
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Acidic
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These solutions are pH 6 or below
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Neutral
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pH 7 is said to be
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Alkaline (basic)
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These solutions are pH 8 or above
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Buffers
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These help to keep a constant pH since organisms usually tolerate only small changes in pH
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Organic molecules
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Contain carbon, abundant in living organisms, essential to life.
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Macromolecules
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Large, complex, organic molecules are called those (lipids, polysaccharides, protein and nucleic acids).
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Functional groups
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Groups of atoms with special chemical features that are functionally important.
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Structural isomer
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Contains the same atoms but in different bonding relationships
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Cis-butene
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Atoms are right next to each other
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Trans-butene
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Atoms that are up, across and down from each other
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Stereoisomer
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Same bonds but atoms spatial positioning different
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Enantiomer
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Exists as a pair of molecule that are mirror images
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Carbohydrates
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Hydrated carbon. Cn(H2O)n. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
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Monosaccharides
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Simple sugars. Single sugars. Pentose (5) ribose. Hexose (6) glucose. 5 and 6 are the most come
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Disaccharides
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Carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides. Either joined by dehydration or condensation reaction. Broken apart by hydrolysis. I.e. sucrose, maltose, lactose
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Polysaccharides
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Many monosaccharides linked together to form long polymers. Energy storage, starch, glycogen.
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Proteins
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Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and small amounts of other elements, notably sulfur. Amino acids are the monomers. Side-chain determines structure and function
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Hydrophobic
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What does non polar tell you?
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10
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How many non polar amino acid groups are there?
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5
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How many polar amino acid groups are there
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2
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How many acidic polar amino acid groups are there? Aspartic and glutamic
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3
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How many basic, polar amino acid groups are there? Histidine, lysine, arginine.
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Peptide
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Amino acids form these bonds, which form polypeptides.
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Van der Waals forces
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In a nonpolar molecule, electrons may be unevenly distributed or evenly distributed. In some cases, temporary attractive forces that are even weaker than hydrogen bond form between molecules.
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Disulfide bridges
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Links two amino acids together. Covalent bonds that occur within a polypeptide or between different polypeptides.
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Nucleic acids
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Responsible for the storage, expression and transmission of genetic information. DNA, RNA.
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DNA
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Store genetic information coded in the sequence of their monomer building blocks. POLYMER
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RNA
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Involved in decoding this information, into instructions for linking together a specific sequence of amino acids a polypeptide chain
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Formula
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This is the blank for DNA or RNA.
Phosphate group,
5 carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
Base
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Differences
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These are the blank between DNA and RNA
Thymine, Uracil
2 strand-double helix, single strand
1 form, several forms
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Lipids
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Hydrophobic molecules composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon atoms and some oxygen. Fats, steroids, waxes.
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Glycerol
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Is a three carbon molecule with one hydroxyl
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Fatty acids
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A chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group.
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Saturated
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This type of fat is saturated with hydrogen. Solid at room temperature
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Unsaturated
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Unsaturated Fat containing a double bond. Relates to the number of H bonds
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Storage
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Fats are important for energy blank
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Essential fatty acids
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The fatty acids that the body cannot make are called these. Those most come from a dietary source.
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Phospholipid
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Made from glycerol,bonded to two fatty acids and a phosphate, amphipathic molecule. Basic component of biological membranes.
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Steroid
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Another type of lipid. Cholesterol- four fused rings of carbon, important component of animal membranes, not very water soluble
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Steroid hormones
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Estrogen, testosterone differ by three small chemical differences but controls male/female characteristics
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Anabolic steroids
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Mimic the effects of testosterone and dihydrotesterone, increase protein synthesis within cells, buildup of cellular tissues, especially muscle cells. CHANGE GENE EXPRESSION. Inquired production of proteins, decreases muscle breakdown
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Phospholipid bilayer
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Framework of the membrane
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Transmembrane proteins
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Regions are physically embedded in the hydrophobic portion of the bilayer.
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Lipid-anchored proteins
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An amino acid of the protein is covalently attached to a lipid.
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Peripheral membrane proteins
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Noncovalently bound either to integral membrane proteins, or to polar head groups.
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BIO 116: PLANT STRUCTURE