BIO 112: BIOLOGY 112
259 Cards in this Set
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what is a genome
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the DNA or genetic information of a cell
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what is cell division
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the separation of one parent cell into daughter cells involving either mitosis or meiosis and cytokinesis
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what is a parent cell
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the cell that undergoes cell division
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what is a daughter cell
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the product of cell division
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what is a somatic cell
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any cell in an organism besides the gametes
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what is a gamete
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egg and sperm
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what is a zygote
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diploid cell resulting from the union of sperm and egg
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what is chromatin
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a complex of DNA and associated proteins
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what are sister chromatids
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a replicated chromosome
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what is a centromere
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a region of specialized chromatin found within each chromosome that binds the kinetochore and serves as a site for sister chromatid attachment
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what is mitosis
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division of the nucleus in somatic cells resulting in 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical
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what is meiosis
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division of the nucleus in gametes resulting in 4 daughter cells that are genetically different
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what is cytokinesis
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division of the cytoplasm
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what is a spindle apparatus
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functions to segregate chromosomes between daughter cells during cell division
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what is a centrosome
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microtuble organizing center of the spindle
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what is a kinetochore
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a structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the spindle apparatus.
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what are kinetochore microtubles
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spindle microtubles that attach to the kinetochore of a sister chromatid that function to more a chormosome towards the pole
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what is a nonkinetochore microtubule
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Spindle microtubules that do not attached to a sister chromatid. These microtubules extend from both poles, and function to support the elongation of the cell during anaphase.
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what is an aster
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radial array of microtubles that attach to the plasma membrane
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what two steps are involved in cell division
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replication and distribution of DNA
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what is the name of the adhesive proteins that hold chromosomes together
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cohesin (Rec8)
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what are the two major phases of the cell cycle
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interphase and mitotic phase
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what are the three phases of interphase
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g1, s, g2
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what do g1, s and g2 have in common
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the cell grows in all of them
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what phase in cell division duplicates the genome
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S phase
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what are the two main parts of the mitotic phase
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mitosis and cytokinesis
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what are the 5 subphases of mitosis
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prophase, prometaphase, metaphase. anaphase and telophase
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in what phase do sister chromatids separate and chromosomes more apart
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anaphase
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in what phase do mitotic spindles begin to form
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prophase
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in what phase does the cleavage furrow pinch cells apart
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cytokinesis
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in what phase do chromosomes duplicate
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S of interphase
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in what phase do chromosomes line up at the equatorial plane
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metaphase
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in what phase does the nuclear membrane form around separated chromosomes
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telophase
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in what phase do chromosomes become visible
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prophase
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in what phase do kinetochore-mictrotuble interactions move chromosomes to midline
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prometaphase
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in what phase arecohesin molecules degraded
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anaphase
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what structures are found in the mitotic spindle
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centrosomes, spindle microtubules and asters
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how do microtubles lengthen and shorten during mitosis
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by adding or subtracting subunits of tubulin
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what type of cytoskeletal fiber is found in the cleavage furrow
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actin interacts with myosin
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what type of human cell replicates frequently
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skin and bone marrow
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what type of human cell only replicates on rare occasions
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liver cells
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what type of human cell never replicates
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nerve and muscle cells
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what type of human cell replicates uncontrollably
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cancer cells
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what question is asked at the G1 checkpoint
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is DNA damaged
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what question is asked at G2 checkpoint
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is all the dna replicated
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what question is asked at the M checkpoint
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are all the chromosomes properly attached to the spindle
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what is another name for the G1 checkpoint
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restriction point
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what type of cell is always in the G0 phase
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nerve cells
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what are Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
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protein kinases that function to phosphorylate molecules that are important during mitosis.
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what are cyclins
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proteins that activate Ckds
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what does MPF stand for and what is it
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M phase promoting factor and it is a go signal composed of cyclin and Cdk
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what part of the cell does MPF regulate
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G2 checkpoint
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what is a cancer cell
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cells that do not respond to the normal signals that regulate the cell cycle
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do cancer cells respond to the normal checkpoints within the cell cycle
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no, if they stop dividing it is randomly in the cell cycle
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some cancer cells divide continually when provided with a continuous supply of nutrients in lab cultures. cite an example
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hela cells- cells isolated from a cervical tumor obtained from a Henrietta Lack
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some cancer cells divide continually when provided with a continuous supply of nutrients in lab cultures. cite an example
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hela cells- cells isolated from a cervical tumor obtained from a Henrietta Lack
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what is transformation
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process that enables a normal cell to become a cancer cell
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why is radiation used to treat cancer cells
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exposure to high-energy radiation damages DNA
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what type of cell is susceptible to chemotherapy
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actively dividing cells
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how does Taxol inhibit the cycle
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it prevents the depolymerizaton of microtubes which stops the chromosomes from moving beyond metaphase
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what noncancerous cells can taxol affect
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intestinal, stomach, hair and immune cells
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what is genetics
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the study of heredity and hereditary variation
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what is a gene
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a hereditary unit containing coded information
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what type of macromolecule do most but not all genes code for
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proteins
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how are genes transmitted from one generation to another
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gametes
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what is a karyotype
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pictorial display of an individual's chromosomes
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what is the difference between an autosome and a sex chromosome
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autosomes are any chromosome except sex chromosomes
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what event must occur before homologs can separate during anaphase 1
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the cohesin protein must be degraded by separase between the arms of the sister chromatids
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what event must occur before the sister chromatid can separate during anaphase 2
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the cohesin protein must be degraded at the centromere
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what is the DNA content of the cell at prophase 1
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2x
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what is the DNA content of the cell at prophase 2
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X
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what is the DNA content of the cell after the completion of telphase 2
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1/2 x
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how much more DNA does a cell in G2 have compared with a cell that has completed meiosis 2
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4
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how many more chromosomes does a cell in g2 have compared with a cell that has completed meiosis 2
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twice as many
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what is the most common source of genetic variation in offspring generated through asexual reporduciton
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mutation
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what is an allele
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an alternative version of a gene
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how do heterotrophs and autotrophes generate ATP
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cellular respiration
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what type of energy is transferred during photosynthesis
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light energy to chemical energy
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where does photosynthesis take place
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the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells
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where are many of the enzymes that regulate the light reactions of photosyntheis located within the cholorplasts
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the thylakoid membrane
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where are chlorophyll pigments found within the chloroplast
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thylakoid membrane
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is glucose a direct product of photosynthesis
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no photosynthesis generates a 3 carbon sugar G3P that is used to make glucose
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where does the light reaction take place in the chloroplast
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thylakoid membrane
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where does the calvin cycle take place
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the stroma
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what is the function of the light reation
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convert solar energy to chemical energy
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what is the function of the calvin cycle
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incorporate CO2 into organic molecules that are converted to sugar
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what is the energy source of the light reaction
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sunlight
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what is the energy source for the calvin cycle
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chemical energy (ATP and NADPH)
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what is photophosphorylation
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the light reaction that generates ATP
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light is a form of kinetic energy so how does it move
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light travels in electromagnetic waves
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how is light energy measured
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in wavelength which is the distance from one crest to the next
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what is visible light
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light energy with a wavelength between 380 and 750nm
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which has more energy red or blue light
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smaller the wavelength the more energetic the wave so blue
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what is a photon
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a discrete particle of light
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how is the rate of photosynthesis measured
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the amount of oxygen releases per unit of time
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how to carotenoids help plant cells
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they help to absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that could damage the chlorophyll
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when a chlorophyll pigment absorbs a photon of light what happens to the pigment
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the photon boosts an electron to an orbital where it has more potential energy
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what happens if the chlorophyll molecule exists in an isolated system
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the excited electron immediately falls back down to a ground state
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where are the photosystems located within a chloroplast
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the thylakoid membrane
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what are the two main components of each photosystem
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several light harvesting complexes and a reaction center
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what pigment molecule is in photosystem 2
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chloyaphyll a P680
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what pigment molecule is in photosystem 1
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chlorophyll a P700
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what happens withing the reaction center when energy is transferred to specific chlorophyll molecules
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electrons are transferred to the primary electron acceptor
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what happens to the electrons in the primary acceptor in photosystem 1
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the electrons travel down the transport chain where they function to reduce NADP+ and H+ to NADPH
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what is the source of high energy electrons for cellular respiration
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glucose
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what is the source of high energy electrons for photosynthesis
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water
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what is the energy source for cellular respiration
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chemical energy (food)
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what is the energy source for fphotosynthesis
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light energy
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what two organ systems function to coordinate the activities of the body
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endocrine and nervous system
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what body system uses both electrical and chemical signals
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nervous system
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what body system uses chemical signals
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endocrine
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what type of signal is involved in stimulating your muscles to contract while running
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nervous
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what signal is involved with coordinating digestion processes while you sleep
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endocrine
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what systems areinvolved in regulating hometostasis
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nervous and endocrine
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what are the homeostatic levels for body temp, ph, blood sugar and osmolarity
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body temp=37C pH=7.4 blood sugar=90mg/100ml blood and blood osmolarity=300mOsm/L
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what is a regulator
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uses internal control mechanisms to regulate internal changes in the face of external fluctuations
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what is a conformer
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allows internal conditions to vary with certain environmental changes.
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why is thermoregulation important
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most biochemical and physiological processes are sensitive to changes in body temperature
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what is an ectotherm
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an animal that obtains its heat primarily through the environment
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what is an endotherm
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an animal that obtains its heat primarily through internal metabolism
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what is a poikilotherm
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the body temperature with vary with the enviroment
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what is a homeotherm
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the body temperature will remain constant
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what animal is a homeotherm and an endotherm
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humans
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what animal is a poikilotherm and an endotherm
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bird
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what animal is a homeotherm and an ectotherm
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tropical fish
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what animal is a poikilotherm and an ectotherm
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a fresh water fish
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which type of heat transfer primarily occurs when a bird warms itself by sitting in sunlight
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radiation
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which type of heat transfer primarily occurs when you sit on the seat of your car after it has been in the sun all day
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conduction
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what type of heat transfer primarily occurs when you sweat
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evaporation
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what type of heat transfer primarily occurs when you experience the cooling effects of an ocean breeze
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convection
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what layer of skin contain hair follicles and sweat glands
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dermis
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in a walrus what layer of skin contains blubber
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hypodermis
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what are two ways to regulate body temperature by adjusting metabolic heat production
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shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis
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what is nonshivering thermogenesis
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occurs when the oxidation of fatty acids in brown fat cells are tweaked to generate more heat and less ATP
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what is bioenergetics
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bioenergentics is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
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what is the minimal metabolic rate
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the amount of energy that an animal must use for basic biological functions such as cell maintenance, breathing and heart beat
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under what conditions is BMR measured
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animal must be at rest, fasting, not stressed and at a confortable temperature
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what is the BMR of a woman
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1300-1500 kcal/day
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what is the BMR of a man
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1600-1800 kcal/day
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under what conditions is the SMR measured in ectoderms
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same at BMR but particular temperature
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what 6 factors influence the metabolic rate of an animal
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age, sex, size, activity, temp and nutrition
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why do plants need CO2 and water as well as light energy
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these molecules are reactants for photosynthesis
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what types of molecules are used in the body to generate energy
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monosaccharides such as glucose, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids
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is the oxidation of glucose endergonic or exergonic
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exergonic because delta G is negative
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how is the energy generated through the oxidation of glucose used in the cell
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34% is used to generate ATP and the rest is used as heat
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what happens when electrons are relocated between molecules
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energy is released
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what are oxidation-reduction reactions
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reactions that involve the partial or complete transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another
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why is oxygen such a powerful oxidizing agent
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it is very electronegative and will readily accept electrons
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what type of redox reactions release the most chemical energy
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reactions where electrons are relocated to oxygen
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what is NAD+
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a coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier
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what enzyme does NAD+ function with
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dehydrogenase
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where does glycolysis take place
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cytoplasm
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where does pyruvate oxidation take place
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matrix of mitochondria
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where does the citric acid cycle take place
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matrix of mitochondria
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where does oxidative phosphorylation take place
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inner mitochondrial matrix
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is ATP produced in oxidative phosphorylation
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yes
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is ATP produced in pyruvate oxidation
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no
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is ATP produced in the citric acid cycle
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yes through substrate level phosphorylation
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is ATP produced in glycolysis
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yes through substrate level phosphorylation
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how do electrons stored in NADH reach oxygen
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electron transport chains in the inner mitochondrial matrix
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what is substrate level phosphorylation
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the direct transfer of a phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP by an enzyme, usually kinase. this process occurs during gylcolysis and the CAC and generates much less ATP
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in the CAC how many molecules of acetyl CoA are used/ turn and per glucose molecule
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1 and 2
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in the CAC how many molecules of CO2 are used/ turn and per glucose molecule
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2 and 4
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in the CAC how many molecules of NADH are used/ turn and per glucose molecule
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3 and 6
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in the CAC how many molecules of FADH2 are used/ turn and per glucose molecule
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1 and 2
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in the CAC how many molecules of ATP are used/ turn and per glucose molecule
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1 and 2
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what is chemiosmosis
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process that connects the flow of electrons down the electron transport chain and the synthesis of ATP
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where are the electron transport chains located in the cell
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in the cristae of the inner mitochondrial membrane
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what is the terminal electron acceptor in the mitochondrial matrix
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1/2 O2
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what is the proton motive force
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the gradient of H+ ions that exists across the inner mitochondrial membrane
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what enzyme is activated by the flow of electrons down the proton motive force
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ATP synthase
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if the complete oxidation of glucose took place in the liver how much ATP would be generated
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32 ATP
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when oxygen is scarce in muscle cells, how do these cells continue to generate energy
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lactic acid fermentation
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what key enzyme sets the pace of glycolysis and the CAC
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phosphofructokinase
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if oxygen is present, pyruvate will enter the mitochondrial matrix but before this can occur pyruvate catalyzes 3 reactions. what are the products of each reaction
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2 CO2, 2 NADH and 2 acetyl-CoA
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which of the electron carriers is not a protein
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Q
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why is energy released when electrons are passed from one electron carrier to the next
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the free energy of the carrier that accepts the electron is lower than the free energy of the carrier that donates the electrons
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how is energy from the electron transport chain used to drive chemiosmosis
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it is used to pump H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane which generates the proton motive force
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what two macromolecules are used to generate energy in glucose starved cells
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fats and proteins
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what monomers of fats are used to generate energy in glucose starved cells
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glycerol and fatty acids
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what monomer of proteins are used to generate energy in glucose starved cells
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amino acids
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if 3 acetyl CoA molecules enter the CAC how many CO2 molecules would be generated
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6
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during glyolysis, the first phase involves the conversion of glucose to 2 G3P and the second phase involves the conversion of 2 G3P molecules to 2 pyruvate molecules. during this process how many ATP molecules are used
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2 during phase one and 4 during phase two
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during oxidative phosphorylation the energy generated when electrons are transferred from NADH to the electron transport chain is used to
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actively pump H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane and into the intermembrane space
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during aerobic respiration, what is the final electron acceptor during oxidative phosphorylation
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oxygen
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chemical signals help coordinate the activities of the body. chemical signals that are released into the blood are usually produced in...
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endocrine cells and are long lasting
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Species X is an aquatic organism that has a blood osmolarity of approximately 280 mOsm/L and a body temperature of ~20 °C during the winter and ~30°C during the summer. This species lives in an environment with an osmolarity of ~30 mOsm/L and a temperature that ranges between 19 to 31°C. …
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osmoregulator and an ectotherm
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what 2 heat transfer processes are utilized most when a cool breeze enhances the release of heat from dilated superficial blood vessels
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radiation and convection
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if the ambient temperature is 25C and a women's body temperature drops below 37C what mechanism is most likely triggered
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superficial blood vessels constrict
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what animal would have the highest BMR (L O2/hr) PER KG of body mass: cat, tiger, mouse, elephant
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mouse
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in the summary equation for photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O what provides the oxygen atoms found in O2
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water
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what molecule is a direct product of the calvin cycle
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G3P
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how do humans obtain the carotenoids that are critical in protecting their cells from excessive light energy
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by consuming a variety of colorful vegetables and fruits
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how much ATP must the calvin cycle used to generate 2 glucose molecules
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36
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the burning (oxidizing) of algal biofuels was used to partially power a boeing 737-800s flight from houston to chicago. where did the carbon in this algal biofuel ultimately originate
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CO2 found in the atmosphere
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the genome of the bacteria E. coli reproduces via _____ and consists of _____
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_____ binary fission and consists of a single circular chromosome
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the epithelial cells that line the human stomach are replaced frequently. when during the cell cycle of an epithelial cell will its genome duplicate
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S of interphase
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T/F microtubles originate from the centrosomes located at either pole of the cell
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true
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T/F Kinetochore microtubles are attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids
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true
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T/F nonkinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase
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false
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T/F microtubules are cytoskeletal fibers composed of tubulin subunits
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true
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what type of cells replicate infrequently: liver, nerve, bone marrow or skin
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liver
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what phase has the highest level of cyclin: end of G1, end of anaphase, beginning of prophase or beginning of S
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beginning of prophase
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sister chromatids are attached by a complex of cohesin proteins. during meiosis 1, when and where within the sister chromatids are these proteins degraded
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during anaphase 1, the cohesin protein complex is degraded at the arms of the chromosome
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if the DNA of a diploid cell is 2x during the G1 phase of the cell cycle, what is the DNA content of one of its daughter cells at the end of meiosis 1
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2x
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species Z has a haploid number of 4. how many chromatids are found in a daughter cell at the end of meiosis 1
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8
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recombinant chromosomes are generated during crossing over when
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homologous chromosome synapse at prophase 1
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how many haploid combinations of chromosomes would be possible in the gametes of a sexually reproducing species with a diploid number of 6
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8
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if a metabolic poison targets oxidative phosphorylation by functioning as a transmembrane agent that shuttles protons across membranes, where would this toxin most likely funciton
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inner mitochondrial membrane
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if a metabolic poison decreases ATP production in cells, what direction does this poison shuttle protons within the mitochondria
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out of the intermembrane space and into the matrix which would decrease the proton motive force
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what is the COMPLETE definition of homeostasis
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homeostasis is an animal's ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment, even when the external environment changes significantly
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give an example of a physiological process that is regulated by negative feedback
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thermoregulation or osmoregulation
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give an example of a physiological process that is regulated by positive feedback
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the birthing process
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what type of feedback mechanism is more common in the human body and why
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negative because it functions to dampen a signal after the effect of the signal is achieved
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what is negative feedback
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functions to dampen a signal after the desired effect of the signal is achieved
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what is positive feedback
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functions to keep a process going towards completions rather than keeping it in balance
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if not treated quickly, an individual with malignant hyperthermia might die if his cardiovascular system does not keep up with the aerobic demands of the skeletal muscles. knowing what you do about equilibrium in isolated and open metabolic systems, why might this individual die
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without the delivery of the reactants, oxygen and glucose, and the removal of the products, water and CO2, of cellular respiration the skeletal muscles will become "isolated" systems and metabolic reactions would reach equilibrium and stop
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in healthy individuals, how does the cardiovascular system function to dissipate excessive heat that is generated during aerobic respiration in skeletal muscles
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dilates superficial blood vessels
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what is the specific function of water during the light reaction
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water donates the electrons for the light reaction in photosystem 2 because the water is split and the electrons are used to replenish P680+ back to P680.
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why is photosynthesis the most important metabolic process on earth
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it generates organic materials that all organisms require as both fuels and structural molecules within cells. it also generates oxygen that most organisms need for cellular respiration
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what is the name of the protein that activates Cdks (___-dependent)
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cyclin
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the NK4a/ARF family of genes code for proteins that bind to Cdks and arrest the cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. cells with mutations in these genes do not make these proteins. what type of cell would you predict to have a mutation within a NK4A/ARF gene? and why
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cancer cells because they could override the G1 checkpoint and divide uncontrollably
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what can heat be used for in the body
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thermoregulation or dissipated as sweat
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in CH4 + 2O2 ---> CO2 + Energy + 2H2O what is reduced and what is oxidized
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oxygen is reduced and CH4 is oxidized
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what is combustion
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moves electrons closer to oxygen and releases energy that can be used to perform work
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what is respiration
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oxidation of glucose and other molecules in food
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why is glucose such an important organic fuel
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glucose contains many hill top electrons that are transferred to electron carriers during the complete oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide
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what is an obligate anaerobe
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can only carry out fermentation or anerobic respiration meaning it can't survive in the presence of oxygen
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what is a facultative anaerobe
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can only carry out respiration or fermentation depending on conditions of the cell
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what sets the pace for glycolysis and CAC
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inhibitors or activation
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what type of systems hormones are slow and long lasting
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endocrine
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what systems hormones are fast and short lived
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nervous
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what type of change does the endocrine system produce
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gradual change
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what type of change does the nervous system produce
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immediate and rapid
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homeostasis relies largely on _____ feedback
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negative
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what is vasodilation
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increasing the diameter of blood vessels found near the body surface
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what is vasoconstriction
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decrease in the diameter of the superficial blood vessels
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what is a countercurrent heat exchanger
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involves the antiparallel arrangement of blood vessels
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what does brown fat have that white fat does not
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more cytoplasm, dark color, more mitochondria, normal nucleus and multiple lipid droplets
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where is brown fat present
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neck and collarbone, near the spine, aorta and its main branches and near the adrenals
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what is bioenergetics
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overall flow and transformation in an animal
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what plant part is the major site of photosynthesis
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leaf
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the shorter the wavelength.....
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the higher the energy
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what is the reaction center in the photosystem
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protein complex that contains special chlorophyll A molecules
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what does the calvin cycle build
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carbohydrates from small molecules
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carbohydrates from small molecules
|
prophase
|
|
what phase do centrosomes begin to move away from one another
|
prophase
|
|
what phase does a kinetochore microtubule attach to each sister chromatid
|
prometaphase
|
|
what phase do nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those of the opposite spindle
|
prometaphase
|
|
what phase do cells elongate as the nonkinetochore microtubles lengthen
|
anaphase
|
|
what is the longest stage in mitosis
|
metaphase 20 min
|
|
what is the shortest stage in mitosis
|
anaphase
|
|
what phase does the nuclear envelope form
|
telophase
|
|
what reproduces by binary fission
|
bacteria and amoebas
|
|
what are protein kinases
|
enzymes that activate or inactive other protein molecules by phosphorylating them
|
|
what is a loci
|
location on a chromosome
|
|
what is synapsis
|
crossing over between nonsister chromatids within the homologous pair
|
|
what happens in meiosis 1
|
separation of homologous chromosomes
|
|
what happens in meiosis 2
|
separation of sister chromatids
|
BIO 112: BIOLOGY 112