114 Cards in this Set
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Metabolism
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sum of all chemical reactions in the body
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3 Macronutrients
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Protein
Glycogen
Triglycerides
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Glucose
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6 carbon sugar
major energy source for production of ATP
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Glycogen
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polymer of glucose
acts as stored form of glucose in liver and skeletal muscle cells
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Glycolysis
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Glucose breakdown to produce ATP
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Gluconeogenesis
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formation of glucose from a non-CHO precursor
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Glycogenolysis
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Breakdown of glycogen
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Glycogeneis
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synthesis of glycogen
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Glycolysis converts ___ to ____
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glucose to pyruvate
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1 molecule of glucose =
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2 molecules pyruvate
2 NADH+
2 ATP
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Glycolysis is an ___ process
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anaerobic
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Glycolysis occurs in the ___
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cytosol
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Pyruvate can be converted to ____ or ___
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Lactate or acetyl CoA
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Pyruvate converts to lactate in the ___ & the ____ pathway
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cytosol, anaerobic
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Pyruvate converts to acetyl CoA in the ____ through the ___ pathway
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mitochondrial matrix, aerobic
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Key Enzymes of Glycolysis
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Hexokinase
Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH)
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Hexokinase
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conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate in step 1 of glycolysis
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Hexokinase is present in step ___ of ___
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1 of glycolysis
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PFK
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plays role in regulating the rate of glycolysis
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LDH
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converts pyruvate to lactate
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PDH
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converts pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA
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Things that increase glycolysis
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Increased ADP, AMP, P (increases activity of PFK)
Decrease oxygen availability, increased H+ ions (decrease ability to metabolize fats)
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Things that decrease rate of glycolysis
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increased glucose-6-phosphate (decreases activity of hexokinase)
increased ATP and citrate (decreases PFK)
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Krebs Cycle converts ____ to ___, ___ and ___
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Acetyl CoA to 1 ATP, 3 NADH+, 1 FADH & CO2
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Kerbs Cycle occurs in the ___
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Mitochondrial matrix
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Electron Transport Chain uses ___ & ____ to produce ___
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NADH & FADH from Krebs Cycle to produce ATP (and H2O)
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ETC is in the ____
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inner mitochondrial membrane
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Anaerobic/aerobic glycolysis yields ATP at a faster rate
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Anaerobic
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Net ATP yield is lower for aerobic/anaerobic glycolysis
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anaerobic
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Net ATP yield for aerobic glycolysis
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38
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___ ATP from glucose to pyruvate
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2
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___ ATP from production of NADH in cytosol
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6
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___ ATP from pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA
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6
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___ ATP from Krebs Cycle & ETC
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24
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ATP yield from anaerobic glycolysis
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2 per glucose
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Hormones that regulate carbohydrate metabolism
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Insulin
glucagon
epinephrine
growth hormone
cortisol
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__ increases glycogenesis (hormone)
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insulin
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___ increases glycogenolysis (hormone)
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epinephrine, glucagon, growth hormone
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___ decreases glycogenolysis (hormone)
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insulin
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___ increases gluconeogenesis (hormone)
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cortisol, glucagon
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___decreases gluconeogenesis (hormone)
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insulin
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____ increases glycolysis (hormone)
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epinephrine
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Beta Oxidation
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Mitochondrial process; converts fatty acids to Acetyl Co-A
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Lipogenesis
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lipid synthesis
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Lipolysis
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lipid breakdown
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Lipid Metabolism: Basic Steps
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Conversion of stored triglyceride to Acetyl-CoA
Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs Cycle
NADH+ & FADH enter ETC
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Lipid metabolism is faster/slower than glycolysis
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Slower (slowest)
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Lipid metabolism produces ___ ATP
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over 100
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Lipid metabolism is a ___ process
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aerobic
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Glycerol converted to ___ or ___ depending on cell's ___ needs
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glucose or pyruvate, ATP
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Fatty acids converted to ___ & enter ____
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Acetyl CoA, Krebs Cycle
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Things that increase rate of lipid metabolism
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increased oxygen availability
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Things that decrease lipid metabolism
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increased Acetyl-CoA, NADH+
increased lactate, H+ ion produduction
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Hormones that increase lipolysis
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catecholamines, cortisol, thyroid hormones, growth hormone, IGFs
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Hormones that decrease rate of lipolysis
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insulin
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Hormones that increase lipogenesis
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insulin
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Ketone bodies are a result of ___
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lipid catabolism
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Ketoacidosis (acidosis)
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abnormally low blood pressure
body cannot buffer acids
sweet smell on breath
occurs in diabetics w/ insulin deficiency
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Transamination
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Amino group transferred from one molecule to anohter
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Deamination
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Removal of amino group from molecule
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Hormones that increase protein catabolism
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cortisol
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Hormones that increase protein anabolism
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growth hormone, IGFs, thyroid hormones, insulin, estrogen, testosterone
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3 metabolic crossroads
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glucose-6-phosphate
pyruvate
acetyl-CoA
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Positive Energy Balance
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energy intake > energy expenditure
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Energy Balance
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energy output increase > intake
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Negative Energy Balance
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output > intake (weight loss)
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Types of muscle
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Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
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Major functions of muscle
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produce body movements
stabilize body positions
regulate organ volumes
movement of substances w/in body
produce heat
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Major properties of muscle
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excitability
contractility
extensibility
elasticity
thermal
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Excitability
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ability to respond to stimuli and produce electrical signals
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contractility
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ability to shorten and generate force once excited
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Extensibility
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ability to stretch without damaging the tissue
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Elasticity
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ability to return to normal length after being stretched
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Thermal
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ability to produce heat energy
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Characteristics of Skeletal Muscles
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Attaches to bone, skin or fascia
Striated w/ light & dark bands
Voluntary control
Multi-nucleated
Many cells called fibers
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Skeletal Muscle Structure
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Fascicles
Fibers
Myofibrils
Sarcomeres
Filaments
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Connective tissue surrounding muscles
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epimysium
perimysium
endomysium
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Epimysium
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surrounds the whole muscle
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Perimysium
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surrounds bundles (fascicles) of 10-100 muscle cells
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Endomysium
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separates individual muscle cells
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Myofibrils
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contractile elements of muscle
composed of protein filaments
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Sarcolemma
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muscle cell membrane
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T Tubules
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invaginations of sarcolemma
quickly spread AP to all parts of muscle fiber
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Sarcoplasm
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cytoplasm of muscle cell
lots of glycogen
myoglobin (binds oxygen for ATP production)
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
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tubular sacs similar to smooth ER
Stores Ca
Releases Ca to contract muscle
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Proteins of Myofibrils
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Contractile
Regulatory
Structural
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Contractile Protein
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myosin and actin
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Regulatory proteins
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turn contraction on and off
troponin and tropomyosin
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Structural Proteins
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provide proper alignment, elasticity & extensibility
link myofibrils to sarcolemma
titin, myomesin, nebulin and dystropin
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Thick filaments
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myosin
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Thin filaments
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actin, troponin, tropomyosin
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Neuromuscular Junction
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Region of synaptic contact between a somatic motor neuron & a skeletal muscle fiber
synaptic end bulb to motor end plate
ACh is neurotransmitter
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Motor Unit
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one motor neuron & all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates
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Motor Unit Recruitment
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Increasing the number of active motor units
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Not all motor units in a muscle fire at same time because..
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delays fatigue, longer periods of contraction, smooth muscular contraction (not jerky)
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Muscle Tone important for..
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maintaining posture
maintaing blood pressure
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Muscle Contraction/Relaxation Cycle
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AP arrives at motor end plate; Release of Ca2+ from SR
Removal of troponin-tropomyosin complexes from binding sites; sliding of actin & myosin filaments to shorten sarcomeres
cessation of AP; Ca2 pumped back into SR
Toponin-tropomyosin complexes cover binding sites; sarcomeres return t…
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Factors affecting force production
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# of motor units activated
type of motor units activate
size of muscle
muscle length
joint angle
speed of action
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___ motor units activate, ___ force
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increase, increase
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___ fast twitch motor neurons activated, ___ force
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increase, increase
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___ muscle fiber size, ___ force
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increase, increase
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___ force, ___ velocity
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decrease, increase
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Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
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Type 1: slow oxidative, slow-twitch
Type IIa: fast oxidative-glycolytic (FOG)
Type IIb: fast glycolytic, fast-twitch
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Type 1, slow oxidative, slow twitch
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Red in color
lots of mitochondria, myoglobin, blood vessels
produce ATP through aerobic metabolism
prolonged, sustained contractions
maintaining posture, endurance
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Type IIa, fast oxidative-glycolytic
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pink
fewer mitochondria, myoglobin, blood vessels
produce ATP through aerobic metabolism and anaerobic glycolysis
prolonged activities but quicker than type I
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Type IIb, fast glycolytic, fast twitch
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white
few mitochondria & blood vessels, low myoglobin content
produce ATP through anaerobic glycolysis
anaerobic movements for short duration
weight lifting, sprinting, etc.
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Muscle Fatigue
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inability to contract muscles
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Contributing factors of muscle fatigue
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protective mechanism
insufficient release of ACh
depletion of CP
decline of Ca
insufficient oxygen or glycogen
buildup of lactic acid
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Muscle Cramps
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painful sustained muscle contraction
myosin head doesn't completely detach from actin
insufficient ATP
electrolyte imbalance
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Rigor Mortis
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stiffening of muscles after death
chemical changes in muscle
No ATP; lose ability to pump Ca into SR; diffuses into sarcomere; binds w/ troponin, allows crossbridges to form
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Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle
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Involuntary
Striated
Single, centrally located nucleus
Large and numerous mitochondria to generate ATP aerobically
cells connected by intercalated discs
auto rhythmic
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Contraction of Cardiac Muscle is ___ than skeletal
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longer (10-15 x longer)
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Smooth Muscle Characteristics
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Small, involuntary cells
non-striated
single, oval-shaped, centrally located nucleus
attached to hair follicles in skin
in walls of hollow organs
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Types of Smooth Muscle
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Visceral
Multi-unit
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EXSS 276: EXAM 2