341 Final Study Guide Problem Solving when you want to reach a specified goal but solution is not immediately obvious because you are missing important information and or it isn t clear how to reach goal Problems Initial state describes the situation at the beginning of the problem o o Goal state when you solve the problem o Obstacles restrictions that might make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state Well defined vs ill defined problems Understanding problems have constructed a well organized mental representation of the problem based on both the information provided and own previous experience o Attention need to decide which information is most relevant to the problem s solution and then attend to that info Competing thoughts can produce divided attention Have to focus on the appropriate part of the problem o Methods of representation refers to the way the elements of the problem are translated into another format Symbols use symbols to solve an abstract problem Mistakes when translating words symbols oversimplification of sentences symbols Matrices grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combos of items Diagrams represent abstract info in a concrete way better understanding represent large good way to keep track if complex and categorical Need to use appropriate labels amount of info hierarchical tree diagram Ex Buddhist monk problem o Visual images no boundaries from traditional concrete representations Situated cognition often use helpful info in our immediate environment to create spatial representations emphasizes external situation that surrounds Ex make decisions about up down dimension more quickly than left right Argues that ability to solve problem is tied into specific physical and social context in which we learned to solve the problem Also that abstract intelligence test fails to see how competent a person would be in solving problems in real life settings Argues that traditional approach is too simplistic Implications for education suggests children should have experience in solving problems they are likely to encounter outside school Emphasis on ecological validity conditions in which research is conducted are similar to natural setting where skills are applied o Embodied cognition often use our own body and our own motor actions in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge emphasizes own body Ex more likely to remember tip of the tongue words if allowed to use gestures Rope tying experiment more likely to solve if instructed to swing arms during exercise break o Algorithms method that will always produce a solution to the problem although the process can sometimes be inefficient and unsophisticated Ex exhaustive search method where you try out all possible answers using a specified system o Heuristic general rule that is usually correct Analogy employ a solution to a similar earlier problem to help solve a new problem Duncker s radiation problem Problem isomorphs refer to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions but different specific details o People tend to focus more on the superficial content of problem than its abstract meaning Strategies Influences a particular area o Pay attention to obvious surface features but fail to emphasize structural features underlying core that must be understood to further solve problem correctly Hill climbing heuristic when reaching a choice point consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward goal Useful when not enough info about alternatives May fail to choose indirect alternative with long term benefits Encourages short term goals rather than long term solutions Means end heuristic requires you to identify the end result that you want and then determine the means methods to use to reach ends Divide problem into subproblems then try to reduce difference between initial state and goal state for each subproblem One of the most effective and flexible strategies People reluctant to move away from goal state even if correct solution requires temporary detour Ex General Problem Solver GPS o Expertise demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for Superior long term memory related to discipline and detailed structure Develop top down processes that allow them to perform well on many different component of problem solving Typically don t excel in other areas More likely to use means end heuristic effectively solve problems systematically emphasize structural similarities Faster and more accurate at problem solving Use parallel processing handles two or more items at the same time Better at monitoring progress while problem solving o Mental set applying the same solution used in previous problems even though there is a different o o easier way to solve the problem Close mind prematurely and stop thinking about how to solve effectively Overactive top down processing strongly guided by previous experience fail to consider more effective solutions Fixed mindset believed to have mindset with a certain amount of intelligence and other skills and no amount of effort can help perform better Growth mindset cultivate intelligence and other skills challenge to perform better Functional fixedness tend to assign stable fixed functions to an object fail to think about features of object useful to solve a problem Applies when we apply strategy too rigidly Stereotype threat in social cognitive theory people may be hampered by a negative stereotype about belonging to a group that is perceived as being less competent in a specific area e females on math test Proposes that when these individuals are reminded of membership performance may suffer Can cause high arousal worse performance May work hard to suppress thought suppression reduces capacity of working memory Decreases abilities to construct problem solving abilities o Mental set functional fixedness stereotype threat overactive top down Insight problems vs non insight problems o Insight problem initially seems impossible to solve but alternative approach suddenly comes into consciousness People with large WM solve relatively quickly Usually start with incorrect assumptions at beginning of problem Top down processing dominates thinking might prevent solving Experience sudden jump in confidence when close to solving o Non insight solve problem gradually by using memory reasoning skills and strategies Confidence builds gradually as solving