Memory and Cognition Final Exam Study Guide:Ch. 11: Problem Solving and CreativityChapter Introduction- 4 aspects of problem solving: 1. Understanding problem 2. Problem solving strategies 3. Factors that influence and 4. Creativity- Problem representation influenced by environmental cues/cues related to body- Analogy approach – solve problem based on experience with similar previous problems- Means ends – break problem into sub problems and solve individual ones- Hill climbing – at every choice point you choose alternative to direct to goal- Over active top down processing encourages stereotypes (decrease math performance)- Top down useful if solving noninsight problem- Creativity – finding solutions that are novel and useful- More creative if something is enjoyable than if they may win competition- Problem solving – want to reach specified goal, solution not immediately obvious because missing important information or not clear how to reach goal- 3 components of problems:o 1. Initial state – describes situation at beginning of problemo 2. Goal state – solve the problemo 3. Obstacles – restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from initial state to goal state- Thinking – requires you to go beyond information given so you can reach goal (solution, belief, or decision)- Effective problem solvers plan their attack (don’t use trial and error) Understanding the Problemo Understanding – construct well organized mental representation of problem basedon info provided and own previous experienceo 1. Pay attention to relevant infoo 2. Methods of representing problemo 3. Situated cognition (how context helps you understand problem) and embodied cognition (own body helps you understand problemPaying Attention to Important Informationo Problem solving relies on attention, memory, and decision makingo Attention – competing thoughts divide ito Focusing – if effective, read description carefully, pay attention to inconsistencies, scan strategicallyMethods of Representing the Problemo Problem representation – way you translate elements of problem into different format (if appropriate, likely to reach solution)o Gestalt – emphasis on representation  symbols, matrices, diagrams, visualsSymbolso Mistakes when trying to translate words into symbols (reverse roles of two variables)o Oversimplify sentence and misrepresent informationMatriceso Matrix – grid with rows and columns that show all possible combinations of itemso Need proper labelso Suitable when information is stable rather than changing over timeDiagramso Verbal description and diagram most accurateo Allow you to represent abstract in concrete form, discard unnecessary detailo Hierarchical tree diagram – uses tree like structure to show possible options in aproblem, shows relationship of categorized itemso Diagrams leave more mental space in working memory for solving problemVisual Imageso Some people prefer mental imagesSituated Cognition, Embodied Cognition, and Problem Solvingo Situated cognition – use helpful information in immediate environment to create spatial representations (make decisions about up down more quickly than left right)o Embodied cognition – use own body and motor actions to express abstract thoughts (likely to remember word if u act it out)o Use both of these to solve problemsSituated Cognitiono Brazilian boys understood math – buyer would buy more candy bars if cheaper in bulko Ability to solve problem tied to physical and social contexto Traditional cognitive approach too simplistic; cognitive processes take advantage of info rich environmento Kids should solve math problems encountered outside schoolo Emphasis on ecological validity – conditions in which research conducted similar to setting in which results will be appliedEmbodied Cognitiono People must mentally rotate figure to see if it matches another oneo Hand gestures are useful in solving problems if they match gestures needed to solve problemProblem-Solving Strategieso Algorithm – method that produces solution to problem although process can be inefficiento Exhaustive search – try out all possible answers using specified systemo Looking for only pronounceable letter combinations (when unscrambling word) isa heuristico Heuristics do not guarantee a solutiono More likely to solve every day problems with heuristics not algorithmso 3 widely used heuristics: analogy, means ends, hill climbingThe Analogy Approacho Analogy approach – employ solution to a similar earlier problem to help solve new oneo Airplane created from analogy of wings of bird to wings of planeThe Structure of the Analogy Approacho Challenge – determine abstract puzzle underneath the detailso Peel away irrelevant details to reach coreo Problem isomorphs – set of problems that have same underlying structures but different special detailso Surface features – specific objects and terms used in questiono Structural features – underlying core that must be understood to solve the problemo People with limited problem solving skills and metacognitive ability are likely to have difficulty using analogiesFactors that Encourage Appropriate Use of Analogieso People overcome influence of context and use analogy method appropriatelyo More likely to use analogy strategy correctly if try several similar problems before tackling targeto If students sort problems into categories, solve statistics problems more accuratelyThe Means-Ends Heuristico 2 important components:o 1. Divide problem into subproblems – smaller problemso 2. Try to reduce difference between initial state and goal state for each subproblemo Must identify final result that you want and figure out means to reach endso One of most effective and flexible problem solving strategieso Example: girl uses stapler to fix hem of skirt – 1. Identify object to fix hem (stapler) 2. Locate objectResearch on the Means-Ends Heuristico Working memory active when people plan movement sequence for subproblemo Sometimes solution requires you to move backward (increase distance from initialstate and goal state)o People are reluctant to move away from the goal state even if solution requires detoursComputer Simulationo Computer simulation – write computer program that performs task same way a human wouldo Program makes some false starts, no better or worse than humano General Problem Solver (GPS) – uses means endsThe Hill-Climbing Heuristico Goal is to reach top, you see a fork and take