EXP3604C Exam 3 Review Imagery analog code Mental rotation experiment results and how they are interpreted as evidence for an o Shepard and Metzler 1971 Say whether the objects are the same or different half same but rotated half mirror images o linear relationship between rotation and reaction time o The mental process analogous to the physical process of rotation other classic experiments such as mental scanning across distances on a map zooming in on small versus large images o Kosslyn 1973 Focus on one part have to answer question about other end or same end Ss having to scan far across their image e g from right to left took the longest o Focusing on detail in a mental image is like focusing on detail in perceptual image Participants say they zoomed in to answer the question Analog versus propositional representation for imagery o analog code representation has characteristics of the physical object o propositional code representation is an abstract language like Parallels between visual perception and visual imagery o same area of brain activated V1 o neuropsychological damage to a visual process e g color object identification location visual neglect produces the same problems in imagery as in perception o Interference and priming studies of imagery and perception Cognitive maps regularizing angles landmarks and distance judgments symmetry heuristic rotation heuristic alignment heuristic mental models Semantic Memory Why do we have the particular categories that we do Structure of categories Classical View of category as set of necessary and sufficient features o typicality effects do not fit with classical view o categories have graded structure Levels of categories basic superordinate etc o Having certain features makes it just more likely that an instance belongs to a Probabilistic models category o Prototype models If an object is similar to the prototype it will be categorized as an instance of a category how prototypes or typical category members affect psychological processes such as category membership judgment priming order of generating examples all instances of a category you have experienced Judge new items as member of category based on similarity to known examples o Exemplar theory Theory Based view o Concepts are not represented in terms of visible attributes or apparent similarity to a prototype o concepts are represented in terms of our theory about them o Determines what features are relevant for similarity Models Hierarchical networks of concepts and features o Concepts are represented by nodes o Nodes have features o Nodes are connected by links o All nodes and links are in a network o Nodes in these networks are semantically related making this a semantic network Process of spreading activation o Distance between nodes are short long depending on typicality o All nodes have some level of activation the mental activity of thinking of a o Nodes become active through stimulation from the environment or by other concept thoughts o Activation spreads at least 2 links Explanation of priming in tasks such as lexical decision o Meyer Schvaneveldt 1971 Ss see strings of letters respond yes if both are words no if not Faster reaction time for related words Parallel distributed processing models o concept representation is distributed across nodes o memory and knowledge for specific things arestored in the connections between units o connectionist models neural network models o How PDP models learn Start with random weights value for how well activation spreads down link Gives response Give feedback Adjusts weights o NETtalk Sejnowski Rosenberg 1987 Want it to read sort of See input of 7 letters outputs middle phoneme speech sound Learned to use the context surrounding a letter to correctly influence how the letter was pronounced Mimic patterns of data found in people so used as a model graceful degradation if you lesion nodes power law of learning as do people spacing effect short term cramming lost easily same errors children make in pronouncing words o balance beam task Siegler 1979 changed the number of discs or moved them along the beam each time asking to predict which way the balance would go Problem Solving and Creativity Problem solving as a search of the problem solving space o Problem solving space all possible situations you can find yourself in as you work on a problem with legal moves o Operators are applied to move from one state in the problem space to another Tower of Hanoi Algorithm Brute force search of all possibilities Heuristics Rules of thumb to guide search o Hill climbing choose the alternative that is most similar to the goal state o means ends heuristic Two steps done repeatedly until solution obtained 1 Identify the differences between the current state and the goal state 2 Apply an operator to reduce the difference problem representation o good representation can make problem easier by highlighting key elements mutilated checkerboard versus the matchmaker problem Surface features of problems versus underlying structure of problem o surface features the specific objects and terms used in the problems o deep structure underlying meaning and solution that is common to both problems just read Solving problems by analogy to prior problems o analogous problems more often helped if they were originally solved rather than o Duncker s Radiation Problem using General Problem o Hard to retrieve prior remote analogy without hint o Memory search is local based on details only Similar or Mere Appearance stories led to being reminded of first story not the Analogy Expertise in domain aids problem solving dramatically much different knowledge base to draw on Mental set functional fixedness insight problems Creativity Myth of genius view of problem solving and creativity o Genius view Truly creative acts involve extraordinary people carrying out extraordinary thought processes 1 Unconscious thought processes 2 Altered States of consciousness 3 Novel leaps of thought using remote analogies Protocols o many small steps using prior work no giant leaps much hard work 1 First try to search knowledge for something useful search is local not for remote analogies 2 Creative solution comes gradually from initial attempt to solve not leap of insight 3 If attempt doesn t work you learn more about problem changes search Evidence from protocols during problem solving examples from real life Discovery of structure of DNA Alexander Calder invention of mobiles Role
View Full Document
Unlocking...