Cognitive)Psychology:)Test)1))Chapter(1((Introduction(• Cognition:((mental(activity)(describes(the(acquisition,(storage,(transformation,(and(use(of(knowledge(• Cognitive(psychology:(2(meaningsA(o 1)(A(synonym(for(“cognition”(so(it(refers(to(the(variety(of(mental(activities(we(do(o 2)(Refers(to(a(particular(theoretical(app roa ch(to(psychology(• Cognitive(approach:(a(theoretical(orientation(that(emphasizes(peoples(though(processes(and(their(knowledge.(A(brief(history(of(cogitative(psychology(• Empirical(evidence:(scientific(evidence(obtained(by(careful(observation(and(experimentation(• Wilhelm(Wundt:(the(founder(of(psychology(o Proposed(that(psychology(should(study(mental(processes(by(using(introspection( Introspection:(carefully(trained(observers(systematically(analyze(their(own(sensations(and(report(them(as(objectively(as(possible(under(standardized(conditions.((• Early(memory(researchers:(o Hermann(Ebbinghaus:(the(first(person(to(scientifically(study(human(memory( Researched(used(nonsense(syllables.((o Mary(Whiton(Calkins:(reported(a(memory(phenomenon(called(the(recency(effect.( Recency(effect:(refers(to(the(observation(that(our(recall(is(especially(accurate(for(the(final(items(in(a(series(of(stimuli.(( Emphasized(that(psychologists(should(study(how(real(people(use(their(cognitive(processes(in(the(real(world,(as(opposed(to(in(a(psychology(laboratory.((• William(James(o Prefers(to(theorize(about(our(everyday(psychological(experiences.((o Wrote:(Principles(of(Psychology( Provides(clear,(detailed(descriptions(about(peoples(everyday(experiences.(( Emphasizes(that(the(human(mind(id(active(and(inquiring.(( Foreshadows(numerous(cognitive(topics:(perceptions,(attention,(memory,(understanding,(reasoning,(and(the(tipAofAtheAtongue(phenomenon.((• Behaviorism(o Behaviorism:(psychology(must(focus(on(objective,(observable(reactions(to(stimuli(in(the(environment,(rather(than(introspection.(o John(B(Watson:(the(most(prominent(early(behaviorism(in(the(US.((o Watson(and(other(behaviorists:( Emphasized(observable(behavior( Typically(studied(animals.(( Argued(that(researchers(could(not(objectively(study(mental(representations,(such(as(an(image,(idea,(or(thought.(( Emphasized(the(importance(of(the(operational(definition(• Operational(definition:(a(precise(definition(that(specifies(exactly(how(a(concept(is(to(be(measured.((• The(Gestalt(Approach(o Gestalt(Psychology:(emphasizes(that(we(humans(have(basic(tendencies(to(actively(organize(what(we(see;(furthermore(the(whole(is(greater(than(the(sum(of(it’s(parts.((o Gestalt:(overall(quality(that(transcends(the(individual(elements.( Emphasizes(the(importance(of(insight(in(problem(solving.( Example:(when(you(are(trying(to(solve(a(problem,(the(parts(of(the(problem(my(initially(seem(unrelated(to(each(other,(however(with(a(sudden(flash(of(insight,(the(parts(fit(together(into(a(solution.((• Frederic(Bartlett(o Conducted(his(research(on(human(memory.((o Wrote&Remembering:&An&Experimental&and&Social&Study& Considered(one(of(the(most(influential(books(in(cognitive(psychology.(& Rejected(carefully(controlled(research(and(instead(used(meaningful(materials(such(as(lengthy(stories.(&• Discovered(that(people(made(systematic(errors(while(trying(to(recall(these(stories.(&o He(proposed(that(human(memory(is(an(active,(constructive(process(I(which(we(interpret(and(transform(the(information(we(encounter.(&o Emphasized(schemaAbased(approach(to(memory.&• The(Emergence(of(Modern(Cognitive(Psychology&o The(birth(of(cognitive(psychology:(1956& 1956:(researchers(published(numerous(influential(books(and(articles(of(attention,(memory,(language,(concept(formation,(and(problem(solving.(& Sometimes(called(the(“cognitive(revolution”&o Factors(Contributing(to(the(Rise(of(Cognit ive( Psychology& Psychologists(were(becoming(increasingly(disappointed(with(the(behaviorist(outlook(that(had(dominated(U.S.(psychology(in(previous(decades.&• New(developments(in(linguistics(increased(psychology’s(dissatisfaction(with(behaviorism&o Noam(Chomsky(–(emphasized(that(the(structure(of(language(was(too(complex(to(be(examined(in(behaviorists(terms&• Research(in(human(memory(began(to(blossom&o Further(disenchanted(psychologists(with(behaviorists(approach.(&• Research(on(children’s(thought(processes(became(an(influential(force((developmental(psychology)&o Jean(Piaget& Children(actively(explore(their(world(in(order(to(understand(important(concepts& Children’s(cognitive(strategies(change(as(they(mature& By(the(midA1970’s(the(cognitive(approach(had(replaced(the(behavioral(approach(as(the(dominant(theory(in(psychological(research.(&o The(InformationAProcessing(Approach& A(new(theoretical(approach(that(began(in(the(1960’s.& InformationAprocessing(approach:(argued(that((a)(our(mental(processes(are(similar(to(the(operations(of(a(computer,(and((b)(information(progresses(through(our(cognitive(system(in(a(series(of(stages,(one(at(a(time.(&• Richard(Atkinson(and(Richard(Shiffrin(developed(an(informationAprocessing(model:&o The(AtkinsonAShiffrin(model(of(memory:(proposed(that(memory(invokes(a(sequence(of(separate(steps;(in(each(step,(information(is(transferred(from(one(storage(area(to(another.(&• The(Current(Status(of(Cognitive(Psychology&o One(common(complaint,(in(the(world(of(cognitive(psychology,(concerns(the(issue(of(ecological(validity& Ecological(validity:(a(principle(of(research(design(in(which(the(research(use(conditions(that(are(similar(to(the(natural(setting(where(the(results(will(be(applied.(&Cognitive(Neuroscience(Techniques&• Cognitive(neuroscience:(combines(the(research(techniques(of(cognitive(psychology(with(various(methods(for(assessing(the(structure(and(function(of(the(brain.&o In(recent(decades,(researchers(have(examined(which(structures(in(the(brain(are(activated(when(people(perform(a(variety(of(cognitive(tasks.&• Social(cognitive(neuroscience:(psychology(now(uses(neuroscience(techniques(to(explore(the(kind(of(processes(that(we(use(in(our(interactions(with(other(people.&• Brain(Lesions&o Brain(lesions:(refers(to(the(destruction(of(an(area(in(the(brain,(most(often(by(strokes,(tumors,(blows(to(the(head,(and(accidents.&o The(study(of(brain(lesions(has(definitely(helped(us(to(understand(the(organization(of(the(brain& However,(these(results(are(often(difficult(t o(interpret.(&•
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