Chapter 3 Thinking About Theory and Research Theorizing is a formalized extension of everyday sense making and problem solving Find answers that satisfy a criterion generalize from them and apply them to similar situations 1 Defining Theory a Theory Any conceptual representation or explanation of a phenomenon i Stephen Littlejohn Karen Foss System derived through systematic observation ii The broader an idea is the more studies can be applied to it 2 Level of Generality one way to understand differences among theories how widely can a theory be applied a Grand Theories Explain all of communication behavior in a manner that is universally true Unifies all knowledge we have about communication into one integrated theoretical framework i Example Marxism ii No grand theories of communication exist to this day communication is constantly changing whether from group to group or context to context b Mid Range Theory Explains the behavior of a specific group of people rather than all people Might try to explain the behavior of all people within a specified time or context i have a focus bounded by considerations such as time context or type of behavior c Narrow Theory Concerns only certain people in certain situations i Example Rules for standing in an elevator 3 Components a Concepts Words or terms that label the most important elements in a theory have specific definitions that are unique to the words usage which differs to how we would define the word in everyday usage i Cohesiveness dissonance self scene etc ii Nominal Not observable such as democracy or love must then be turned into something concrete so that it can be observed iii Real Observable such as personal rituals or spatial distance b Relationships Specify the ways in which the concepts in the theory are combined 4 Goals Explain understand predict change most theories focus on one goal over the others a Explain something because of the concepts and their relationships specified in the theory i Rhetorical theories media theories and interpersonal theories b Understand something because of theoretical thinking i Rhetorical theories media theories and interpersonal theories c Predict something based on the patterns suggested by a theory i Traditional persuasion theories organizational theories d Social Change through theoretical inquiry also called empowerment i Feminist theories critical theories effecting social changes not just improving lives e Therefore THEORY An abstract system of concepts with indications of the relationships among these concepts that helps us to explain understand predict or change a phenomenon Such theories can be broadly generalized or narrowly applied Most theories have the ability to generalize moderately or mid range Similar to experience experience though is concrete while theory is abstract 5 Approaches to Knowing How Do You See Speak About the World a Positivistic Empirical Approach Assumes that objective unbiased truths can be uncovered and that the process of inquiry that discovers these truths can be at least in part value neutral Wants an explanation of the world i Advocates the methods of natural sciences with the goal of constructing general laws governing human interactions ii Strives for objection control 1 Control Direction over the important concepts in a theory iii Goal To deduce testable hypotheses from a theory 1 Theory then research model b Interpretive Approach Views truth as subjective biased and co created by the participants the researcher himself being a participant Wants to probe the relativism of the world i Complete objectivity is seen as impossible research does not have to fully rely on what participants say with no outside judgment from researcher ii Values are relevant researchers need to be aware of their own values and state them clearly for readers iii Want rich descriptions of the people they study no need for generalization iv Theory is best induced from observations and experiences the researcher shares with respondents 1 Research then theory approach c Critical Approach An understanding of how knowledge relates to power it is the researcher s responsibility to change the inequities of the status quo Wants to change the world i Those in power shape knowledge in ways that work to perpetuate the status quo ii Powerful people work at keeping themselves in power and silencing minority voices that question the distribution of power and the power holders versions of truth iii Goal Change the status quo to resolve power imbalances and to give voice to those who have been silenced by the power structure 6 Approaches to Knowing What Questions Do You Ask About the World a Ontology Answers to questions about the nature of reality i Reality The study of being and nonbeing ii Gives us a certain vision about the world and what constitutes its important features iii How much free will do people have 1 Empirically laws govern people s free will thus humans do not have a choice about behaviors people are predictable researchers uncover realities 2 Interpretively people do have free choice researchers co create reality 3 Critically researchers see choices as constrained by power b Epistemology Questions about how we know things what counts as knowledge i How researchers see the world truth and human nature influences how they believe they should try to learn about these concepts 1 Empirically Institute control observations not left to chance all through statistics and tests 2 Interpretively Co create study research first 3 Critically Critique power and seek change c Axiology Questions about what is worth knowing focuses on the place of values in theory and research i How values permeate theory and research 1 Empirically Science must be value free avoid them as much as possible 2 Interpretive Values influence the entire research process so acknowledge them 3 Critical Values should be closely intertwined with scholarly work celebrate them 7 Approaches to Knowing How Do You Go About Theory Building a Covering Law Approach Seeks to explain an event in the real world by referring to a general law communication behavior is governed by forces that are predictable and gerneralizable i Fixed relationships between two or more events or objects ii Explains human choices by seeking a prior condition cause that determines the choice that is iii William Dray Theory calls for hypotheses although complete confirmation of theories is iv Now strive for more probabilistic laws statements we can
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