Concept 26.1: Phylogenies show evolutionary relationshipsBinomial NomenclatureHierarchical ClassificationLinking Classification and PhylogenyInterpreting Phylogenetic TreesConcept 26.2: Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular dataMorphological and Molecular HomologiesConcept 26.3: Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic treesCladisticsMonophyletic GroupingParaphyletic GroupingPolyphyletic GroupingShared Ancestral and Shared Derived CharacteristicsConcept 26.4: An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genomeGene Duplications and Gene FamiliesOrthologous and Paralogous genesConcept 27.1: Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic successCell-Surface StructuresInternal OrganizationGenomic OrganizationReproductionConcept 27.2: Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in prokaryotesGenetic ExchangeTransformation and TransductionConcept 27.3: Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptation have evolved in prokaryotesMetabolic Relationships to OxygenNitrogen MetabolismMetabolic CooperationConcept 27.4: Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotic phylogenyProkaryotic DomainsDomain BacteriaConcept 28.1: Most eukaryotes are single-celled organismsProtists are nutritionally diverseEndosymbiosis in Eukaryotic EvolutionMotility in ProtistsSexual Reproduction in ProtistsProtist (Eukaryotic) DiversityConcept 28.2: Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagellaKinetoplastidsEuglenidsConcept 28.3: Chromalveolates may have originated by secondary endosymbiosisAlveolatesDinoflagellatesApicomplexansCiliatesStramenopilesBacillariophyta: DiatomsPhaeophyta: Brown AlgaeConcept 28.4: Rhizarians are a diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities.ForaminiferansRadiolariansConcept 28.5: Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of land plantsRhodophyta: Red AlgaeGreen AlgaeConcept 28.6: Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animalsPlasmodial Slime MoldsCellular Slime MoldsConcept 31.1: Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorptionFungal Nutrition and LifestylesBody StructureSpecialized HyphaeConcept 31.2: Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cyclesSexual ReproductionAsexual ReproductionConcept 31.4: Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineagesChytridsZygomycetesLife Cycle of Rhizopus stoloniferGlomeromycetesAscomycetesAscomycete DiversityAscomycete Life CycleBasidiomycetesBasidiomycete DiversityBasidiomycete Life CycleConcept 31.5: Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfareFungus-Animal SymbiosesFungus-Plant MutualismsLichensConcept 29.1: Land plants evolved from green algaeFour Key Traits Land Plants Share with CharophyceansGenetic EvidenceThe Move to LandFour Key Traits in Nearly All Land PlantsRelationship Among Plant GroupsConcept 29.2: Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytesBryophyte DiversityBryophyte GametophytesBryophyte SporophytesConcept 29.3: Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tallLife Cycles with Dominant SporophytesClassification of Seedless Vascular PlantsFern Life CycleInnovations in Vascular PlantsSignificance of Seedless Vascular PlantsChapter 26: Phylogeny & the Tree of Life- Phylogeny—the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species- Systematics—an analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of organismsConcept 26.1: Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships- Taxonomy—the ordered division of organisms into categories based on a set of characteristics used to assess similarities and differencesBinomial Nomenclature- Carolus Linnaeus—invented the way that we classify organisms- The two part format of the scientific name of an organism- The binomial name consists of genus and specieso These are always written in a different font (e.g., italics)o Genus is always capitalized; species is always lowercase Example: Homo sapiensHierarchical Classification- Linnaeus also introduced the system for grouping species in increasingly broad categories- Figure 26.3o King Philip Came Over from Greece Singing—kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species- Classification o Kingdom—Animaliao Phylum—Chordatao Class—Mammaliao Order—Primateso Family—Hominidaeo Genus—Homoo Species—H. sapiensLinking Classification and Phylogeny - Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching phylogenetic trees- Each branch point (node) represents the divergence of two species- Deeper branch points represent greater amounts of divergence- Lines represent lineages- Figure 26.4Interpreting Phylogenetic Trees- Interior nodes represent common ancestors- Taxa at tips represent living species/groups- Rotating around any node leaves a phylogeny unchangedConcept 26.2: Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular dataMorphological and Molecular Homologies- Phylogenetic history can be inferred from similarities in homologous structure and genes when compared among organisms- Generally, similar morphology and similar DNA sequences= closely related species- But, beware of analogous structures or molecular sequences (aka homoplasies). Similarity may be due to convergent evolution (analogy), not shared ancestry (homology).Concept 26.3: Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic treesCladistics- Cladogram—a diagram depicting patterns of shared characteristics among species- Clade within a cladogram—a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants- Figure 26.11Monophyletic Grouping - Made up of an ancestral species and all of its descendants- Only monophyletic groups qualify as legitimate taxa in cladisticsParaphyletic Grouping- Consists of an ancestor and some, but not all, of that ancestor’s descendants- Figure 26.10bPolyphyletic Grouping- Grouping that lacks the common ancestor of the species in the group- Figure 26.10cShared Ancestral and Shared Derived Characteristics- Shared ancestral characteristic—homologous structure that predates the branching of a particular clade from other members of that clade- Shared derived characteristic—evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade- Figure 26.11Concept 26.4: An organism’s evolutionary history is documentedin its genomeGene Duplications and Gene Families- Gene duplication—the production of
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