CHAPTER THREE:Ethics in ResearchWhat is ethical Research?Balance between the scientific quality vs. Ethical quality of the research--> quality and importance of the research vs. The rights and welfare of participantsProtecting participants from physical and psychological harmProviding freedom of choice about participating in the researchInformed consent (48)Maintaining awareness of the power differentials between researchers and participantsAvoiding abuses of powerRespecting participants’ privacyDemographic informationPurpose and procedureWho is conducting the researchHow are the results to be usedParticipants leave experiment without consequences and ask questionsHonestly describing the nature and use of the research to participantsSimulation study- participants are fully informed about the nature of the research and asked to behave “as if” they were in a social setting of interest. (alternative to deception)Debriefing- right after the research has ended and is designed to explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participants.Postexperimental interview- the participants reactions to the research are assessed.Suspicion check- questioning the participants to determine whether they believed the experimental manipulation or guessed the research hypothesis.Process debriefing- an active attempt to undo any changes that might have occurredAPA1. Protect participants from physical and psychological harmMilgran 1974Self-esteem experimentsEmbarrassmentPotential for lasting impact2. Provide freedom of choice about participating in researchMinimize potential for coercion or undue influenceLab vs. Outside lab researchPaymentResearch with studentsDiminished capacityPregnant women and childrenCertificate of confidentialityMaintain awareness of the power differential between the researcher and the participant3. Power differentialEnsuring participants are treated fairly and respectfullyPrivacy--> anonymity and confidentiality4. Honestly describe the nature and use of research to participantsCannot use deception: information about the nature of the research project is withheld.ConsequencesNo long lasting psychological effectMore enjoyment and educational benefits from studies using deceptionHarmful to the ability of the researcher to conduct researchCHAPTER FOUR:Conceptual Variable- ideas that form on the basis of a research hypothesisMeasured variable- numbers that represent conceptual variablesConceptual Definition- precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variableScales:Nominal- identify a particular characteristicInterval- equal distances between scores on a measure that correspond to equal changes in conceptual variablesRatio- the zero point on a interval scaleOrdinal- ordered list or more or less of a conceptual variableSelf Report Measures:Projective- measure of personality based on images used to construct a profileAssociative Lists- free format responses designed to uncover their overall thoughtsThink aloud- verbalize thoughts into a tape recorder as they complete a task to understand how people formed impressionsCHAPTER SIX:Descriptive Research:Survey: series of self report measures administered through interviews or questionnairesGoal:Produce a snapshot of the opinions, attitudes or behaviors of a group or people at a given timeInterviews:Questions are read to the respondent in person or over the telephoneIn person: allow relationship to form with respondent which may lead to a more honest and open answers (more expensive)Unstructured: free format, talks freely about many topics but geared to what the respondent wants.Focus groups: a number of people interviewed at the same time and accumulate ideas with everyoneStructured: more objective data that uses quantitative FIXED FORMAT items prepared ahead of time. Allows for better comparisons of responses because of control over the situationsQuestionnaires:Set of FIXED FORMAT self report items completed by respondents at their own pace and without supervision.Pros:Produce more honest responses because anonymityCheaperLess susceptible to social desirabilityLess likely to be influenced by experimenterCons:Response rate- % of people who actually complete the questionnaire may be lowQuestion order- people may work out of order and researcher does not know if they did so or not.Question wording, format and context very sensitiveSampling and Generalization:Population- entire group of people the researcher is trying to learn aboutCensus- measure each person about whom we wish to know (rare)Sampling-selection of people to participate in a research project Use results to make inferences about the entire populationSample- those who actually participateRepresentative Sample- proportionately approximately the same as the population in every important aspectProbability Sampling:Each person in population has a known chance of being selected to be a part of the sampleAdvantage- samples representative and can draw inferences of the populationDisadvantage- hard to know if it is fully representative which leads to a sampling biasMUST HAVESampling frame- complete list of all the people in the population and then you can have other sampling methods.Fully representative:1. 1 or more sampling frames2. All selected individuals MUST be sampled3. All participants must be contactedIF NOT THEN SAMPLING BIAS OCCURSRandom sample-Goal- to ensure that each person has an equal chance of being selected to be in the sampleSystematic Random Sampling- sample of a random sample based off of a rule that created (1/70)Stratified sampling- group samples (strata) and data are collected from the subgroups. Sampling from the strataCluster Sampling:Entire population is not knownMake smaller groups for which sampling frames existSampling bias:When sample is not representative of the population because probability of which members of population were selected is unknown.Sampling frames don’t exist or are not accurate.Selected individuals cannot be sampledNon-probability Sampling: only used when no available sampling frameSnowball- one of more individuals contacted and they lead researcher to other contactsConvenience SamplingSummarizing Raw Data:Frequency Distribution- table that indicates how many, % of individuals in a sample fall into each category (BAR CHART)Grouped Frequency Distribution- used to summarize quantitative variables by combining adjacent values into a set of categories and then