Quiz #2 Study GuideChapter 8 - Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions: El Niño and Tropical CyclonesKey Terms- Arctic Oscillation (AO)- Bermuda High- Cape Verde hurricanes- Deep Zone- Easterly Wave- Ekman Spiral - Ekman Transport- El Niño- ENSO- Extratropical cyclone- Eye- Eye wall- Gyre- Hurricanes- La Niña- Mixed layer- North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)- Ocean Current- Oceanography- Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)- Rainbands- Recurvature- Saffir-Simpson Scale- Southern Oscillation- Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)- Storm Surge- Supertyphoon- Surface Zone- Thermocline- Tropical Cyclones- Tropical Depression- Tropical Disturbance- Tropical Storm- Typhoon- Upwelling- Wind ShearSummaryBased on temperature, the vertical structure of the ocean can be classified into three basic layers: the surface zone, the deep zone, and the transition zone (thermocline). In the bottom layer, or the deep zone, the temperature is relatively uniform with depth. The surface zone is the warmest layer and is warmest in tropical waters. Ocean temperature decreases toward the pols and with increasing depth.The atmosphere and the ocean interact in a variety of ways, through exchanges of heat and moisture and also by the creation surface currents. These currents are driven by the winds. Some, like the Gulf Stream, move in well-defined boundaries like a river, while others are broad and diffuse. Surface currents generated by the winds can induce vertical circulations in the oceans. This can causeupwelling of nutrient rich waters. For example, over the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, winds typically rotate counterclockwise around a high-pressure system, producing along-coast winds off eastern Pacific Coast and easterly winds along the equator in the eastern Pacific. The combined force of the wind and the Coriolis force produces offshore flow off Peru, casing upwelling in which cold, deep, nutrient-rich comes up to the surface. This produces cold SSTs off coast along equator in easternPacific. In the western Pacific on the equator, this upwelling does not occur, and as a result, the SST is higher there than in the east. El Niño and La Niña are extreme phases of a naturally occurring climate cycleand describe large-scale changes in SST across tropical Pacific. El Niño and La Niña result form interaction between the surface of the ocean and the atmosphere in the tropical Pacific. During El Niño, warm SSTs replace cold upwelling waters in the eastern Pacific. This shifts thunderstorm activity eastward across the Pacific and ultimately affects weather and climate across the globe. In many locations, especially in the tropics, La Niña (cold episode) produces the opposite climate variations from El Niño and essentially enhances or increases the severity of normalconditions. The oceanic patterns of El Niño and La Niña are closely related to a Pacific-wide seesaw of atmospheric pressure known as the Southern Oscillation. Recently similar oscillations have been discovered over the north Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, highlighting the importance of the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere.Tropical cyclones are large, white whirling storms that obtain their energy from warm ocean waters. They stand out on satellite photos because of their circular cloud patterns and, in stronger storms, a nearly clear eye at the center of thestorm. The clarity and size of the eye on satellite helps estimate the strength of the cyclone. A tropical cyclone begins as a disorganized tropical disturbance. A fewgrow to hurricane or typhoon strength with winds up to 200 mph. Most weaken within a week or two. They typically move west or northwest and then recurve, due to Coriolis forces and the Bermuda high, toward the northeast, but each storm’s path is unique. Hurricanes affecting the US often form in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea in early summer to late fall, with powerful Cape Verde hurricanes often dominating attention in August and September. The location of warm ocean waters largely determines the birthplaces and intensities of tropical cyclones.Tropical cyclones cause destruction with extremely high winds, stormsurges of seawater, and flooding rainfall. Of these, storm surge has been the most deadly and devastating, as in Hurricane Katrina, however in many years, flooding rains have killed more US residents than wind or storm surge.Each hurricane packs its own unique combination of these weapons.Chapter 9 – Air Masses and FrontsKey terms- Air mass- Air mass modification- Blizzard - Cold Front- Continental Polar (cP)- Continental Tropical (cT)- Dryline- Front- Maritime Polar (mP)- Maritime Tropical (mT)- Occluded front- Overrunning- Static Stability- Stationary Front- Warm FrontSummaryAn air mass is a large body of air with similar temperature and moisture properties. The movement of air masses generates fronts and causes changing weather conditions. These changes are sometimes welcomed, while at other times, they are dreaded because of the associated weather hazards.Air masses adopt the characteristics of the source regions in which they form. Cold air masses are referred to as polar air masses (P) because they usually form in the polar regions, where the surface is cold. Warm air masses are of subtropical or tropical origin; both are referred to as tropical air masses (T). Air masses that form over water are referred to as maritime (m), whereas those generated over land are referred to as continental (c). Maritime air masses are usually cooler and moister than continental air masses formed at the same latitude. Mixing and matching these regional categories leads to the four basic air mass types, cP, cT, mP, and mT. Some classification schemes also use the letter A to denote bitter-cold Arctic air masses.An air mass eventually moves and exchanges heat and moisture with the ground it migrates over in a process known as air mass modification. When a cold air mass moves over a warm surface, lower layers of the troposphere warm, decreasing the stability of the air mass. This favors rising motion, which increases the possibility of condensation and precipitation. Conversely, when the warmer air mass moves over a cold surface, it is cooled, increasing the stability of the air mass and opposing the formation of clouds and precipitation.Fronts form when and where air masses collide. The colder air mass pushes or slides under the warmer air mass. When the cold air mass replacesa warm air mass, the boundary between the