Psych 202 1st Edition Exam 2 Study Guide Lectures 7 12 Ch 2 Notes In an experiment researchers control the variations in the conditions that the participants experience independent variables and measure the outcomes dependent variables o Also need control group Descriptive studies a research method that involves observing and noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of the behavior o 2 types Naturalistic observation the researcher is a passive observer making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior Participant observation the researcher is actively involved in the situation Serendipitous unexpected Theory interconnected ideas or models of behavior Hypothesis testable predictions Research tested in a systematic way Data evidence that is collected and evaluated Correlation cannot establish causality or the direction of the relationship To establish causality random assignment must be used EEG measures the brain s electrical activity PET MRI fMRI brain imaging TMS disrupts normal brain activity allowing researchers to infer the brain processing involved in particular thoughts feelings and behaviors Valid meaningful data Reliable consistent and stable Measures of central tendency and variability are used to describe data Inferential statistics decide whether the differences between 2 or more groups are probably just chance variations or whether they reflect true differences in the population being compared Meta analysis combines the results of several studies to arrive at a conclusion Ch 1 Book Notes Introspection a systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts o Experience is subjective Wilhelm Wundt established first psychology lab and institute Structuralism an approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components Titchener Behaviorism a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior Watson Cognitive Psychology the study of how people think learn and remember Cognitive neuroscience the study of the neural mechanisms mechanisms involving the brain nerves and nervous tissue that underlie thought learning and memory Ch 6 Book Notes Classical conditioning associations are made between 2 stimuli one predicts the other Acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination and second order conditioning are all processes associated with this Phobias are learned fear associations Addiction involves a conditioned response which can result in withdrawal symptoms at the mere sight of a drug paraphernalia o Also involves tolerance the need for more of a drug Rescorla Wagner model the strength of a CS US association is determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising Shaping successive approximations of a behavior are reinforced leading to the desired behavior o Primary reinforcers those that satisfy biological needs o Secondary those that do not directly satisfy biological needs reinforcement increase the likelihood that a behavior will recur punishment decrease the likelihood that a behavior will recur Latent learning takes place without reinforcement may not influence behavior until a reinforcer is introduced Memes units of knowledge transmitted within a culture are analogous to genes in that memes are selectively passed on from generation to generation Vicarious learning people learn about an action s consequences by observing others being reinforced or punished for their behavior Mirror neurons are activated when a behavior is observed and performed and may be the neural basis of imitation learning Nucleus accumbens part of the limbic system has dopamine receptors which are activated by pleasurable receptors o Thru conditioning secondary reinforcers can also activate dopamine receptors Habituation is a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a nonthreatening stimulus Sensitization increase in behavioral response after exposure to a new and threatening stimulus Long term potentiation refers to the strengthening of synaptic connections o Observed in the hippocampus learning and memory and amygdala fear conditioning o The receptor NMDA is involved in long term potentiation Ch 12 Book Notes Important nonverbal cues include gait way of walking facial expression and eye contact The fundamental attribution error occurs when personal attributions are favored over situational attributions in explaining other people s behavior Actor observer discrepancy our tendency to make personal attributions when explaining other people s behavior and situational attributions when explaining our own behavior Stereotypes are cognitive schemas Attitudes are influenced by familiarity the mere exposure effect and may be shaped by conditioning and socialization Implicit attitudes operate at an unconscious level o May differ from explicit o o In situations that are socially sensitive implicit attitudes tend to predict behavior better than explicit Explicit attitudes are attitudes that we are consciously aware of and can report Cognitive dissonance produced by a contradiction between attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior Elaboration likelihood model persuasion through the central route which involves careful thought about the message produces stronger and more persistent attitude change than persuasion through the peripheral route which relies on peripheral cues such as attractiveness of the person making the argument Milgram o People may inflict harm on others if ordered to do so by an authority Bystander intervention effect when we fail to help others in need