PSYC 3322 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 9Lecture 1 (January 22)Concepts covered in this lecture: The nervous system, and the brain.The nervous system is made up of three parts: the Central Nervous System, the Peripheral Nervous System, and the Autonomic Nervous System. The CNS mediates behavior and involves the brain and spinal cord. The PNS transmits sensation and produces movement. The ANS balances internal functions and involves the sympathetic division (arousing) and the parasympathetic division (calming).The brain divided:Location TermTop DorsalMidline MedialTo the sides LateralFront AnteriorBack PosteriorBottom VentralAdditional information: Rostral is another word for anterior, usually with animals; caudal is another word for posterior, also with animals.The brain has several surface features: the meninges, the dura mater, the arachnoid layer, and the pia mater. The meninges is made up three layers of protective tissue. The dura mater is the most superficial and is made of fibrous tissues. The arachnoid layer has a spiderlike appearance;fluid inside cushions the brain. The pia mater is softer connective tissue and tightly covers the brain.The cerebral cortex is made of the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe.Lecture 2 (January 27) Concepts covered in this lecture: Cells, the brain’s internal features, and the central nervous system.There are two main types of cells: neurons and glial cells.The brain’s internal features include the nucleus, nerve, and tract.The central nervous system involves three major components in mediating behavior: the spinal cord, the brainstem, and the forebrain. The spinal cord controls body movements, can act independently of the brain, involves the spinal reflex. The brainstem begins where the spinal cord enters the skull; it produces movement and creates a sensory world. The forebrain involvesthe neocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cortical layers.Lecture 3 (January 29)Concepts covered in this lecture: The cells of the nervous system, neurons, structures of a cell, and genes and cells and behavior.The nervous system is compose of neurons and glial cells. In the early 1900s two scientists, Golgi and Cajal, debated over what neurons are. Golgi believed that the nervous system is comprised of interconnected fibers; he developed the Golgi stain. Cajal, however, believed that behavior is due to communication between cells. He used the Golgi stain to know that nerves are separate and not interconnected. He turned out to be right. Both Golgi and Cajal received the Nobel Prize for their work.There are five tpes of glial cells: enpendymal, astrocyte, microglia, oligodendroglia, and Schwann cells.There are three basic divisions for neurons: dendrites, cell body/soma, and the axon. There are also different types of neurons: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.The cell works like a factory, and the cell membrane separates the inside from the outside and regulates movement. The nucleus is the site of gene transcription.Endoplasmic Reticulum: Step 1 DNA uncoils to expose gene, a sequence of nucleotide bases that encodes a protein.Step 2 One strand of the gene serves as a template for transcribing a molecule of an mRNA.Step 3 The mRNA leaves the nucleus and comes in contact with ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum.Step 4 As a ribosome moves along the mRNA, it translates the bases into a specific amino acidchain, which forms the protein.The codon- there is an information flow in the genetic code: DNA → mRNA → protein.Golgi bodies and microtubules are involved in protein packaging and shipment. Proteins that areformed in the endoplasmic reticulum enter Golgi bodies, then are wrapped in a membrane and shipped off. Packages are attached to motor molecule and move along the microtubule. Protein may be incorporated into the membrane, remain the cell as an enzyme, or excreted from the cell by exocytosis.Crossing the Cell Membrane: Channels, Gates, and PumpsA. Channel: Ions can cross a cell membrane through the appropriately shaped channel.B. Gated Channel: Changes shape to allow passage when gates are open, and to prevent passage when both gates are closed.C. Pump: Transporter changes shape to carry substances across a cell membrane.Human somatic cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes. (Down Syndrome is the result of an extra copy of chromosome 21.)Homozygous- AA, BB, CCHeterozygous- Aa, Bb, CcGenetic mutations can be positive, neutral, or negative. Effects may be specific or widespread. Most mutations have negative side effects.Lecture 4 (February 3)Concepts covered in this lecture:Lecture 5 (February 5)Concepts covered in this lecture: Electricity and electrical activity.Neurons convey information as a wave induced by stimulation on the cell body traveling down the axon to its terminal.Two scientists, Hodgkin and Huxley, wanted to experiment on a squid’s axon because it is easier to use than a human’s axon because it is much larger. They kept a squid axon in a salty liquid similar to body fluids, and used microelectrodes on it. They used this to describe the neuron’s electrical activity. Because of this information, scientists greater understand how axons work.Resting potential is the store of potential. For example, an electrical charge across a resting membrane creates a store of potential energy. Ions- A- ions and K+ ions have a higher concentration inside of a neuron, Cl- and Na+ have less. Particles spread out equally, unless there is a solid barrier. (Imagine a glass of water with a membrane split down the middle.)Lecture 6 (February 10)Concepts covered in this lecture: The varieties of neurotransmitters.There are fifty different kinds of neurotransmitters. Some are inhibitory at one location, but excitatory at another. More than one neurotransmitter may be active at a single synapse. There is no simple one-tone relationship between a single neurotransmitter and a single behavior; several neurotransmitters can be tied to one or more behaviors.There are four criteria for identifying neurotransmitters: 1. A chemical must be released in a neuron. 2. When released, the chemical must produce a response in a target cell. 3. Samereceptor action must be obtained when a chemical is experimentally placed on a target. 4. There must be a mechanism for removal after the chemical’s work is done.There are three classes of neurotransmitters: small molecule transmitters, peptide