PLB 115 1st Edition Lecture 4Outline of Last LectureI. How Organisms Obtain EnergyII. Heterotroph vs Autotroph HypothesisIII. Development of an Oxidizing AtmosphereIV. First CellsV. Endosymbiotic TheoryVI. Prokaryotes vs EukaryotesVII. Cell MembranesVIII. Nucleus & it’s ComponentsIX. RibosomesX. Endoplasmic ReticulumXI. Golgi ApparatusXII. Lysosomes----XIII. VacuolesXIV. MitochondrionXV. ChloroplastsXVI. PeroxisomesXVII. CytoskeletonXVIII. CentriolesXIX. Cilia & FlagellaXX. Prokaryote typesCurrent LectureI. CarbsII. LipidsIII. ProteinsVacuolesStorage sacs with outer membranes - Larger vacuoles in plants - Protozoa: Contracting (Contractile) vacuoles to eject excess water from cytoplasmMitochondrionThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.Small bag with bigger bag inside- Bigger bag is folded into cristae: Containing proteins for cellular respiration that releases energy obtained from food to make ATP & requires oxygenChloroplastsSac-like, contains chlorophyll & folded membranes, thylakoids (containing chlorophyll & other photosynthetic proteins) stacked into grana & surrounded by stroma- Function: Photosynthesis (uses sunlight’s energy to make sugar)PeroxisomesSmall membrane-enclosed sacs containing enzymes (like Catalase) that carry out metabolic reactions- Formed in Endoplasmic Reticulum Functions- Breaks down hydrogen peroxide & long-chain fatty acids- Synthesizes cholesterol & bile salts & some lipidsNon-membranous Organelles : Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton, Centrioles, Cilia Flagella, InclusionsCytoskeletonGives shape & support, allows movement- Made of: microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments), intermediate filamentsCentriolesTwo sets of microtubules at right angles of each other(L) inside centrosome that are then used in cell division (separate chromosomes)Cilia & FlagellaHair-like fibers outside cell made of microtubules covered by plasma membrane- Flagella: Longer, fewer & move in smooth whip-like motion- Cilia: Smaller, more & move back & forth “like oars on a boat”Prokaryote types: Domain: Bacteria or Archaea- Contain: DNA & enzymes (reproduce, engage in metabolic reactions) & ribosomes & maybe flagella- Surrounded by plasma membrane & cell wall (maintaining shape) & capsule (help stick to hosts & protects from destruction) Organic Molecules & NutritionMacromolecules (large organic-containing carbon- molecules) essential to life: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acidsEssential macronutrients: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, waterCarbohydratesSugars (simple/monosaccharides)=building blocks of complex carbs (di-/poly-saccharides)- Ex: Glucose= monosaccharide, sucrose= disaccharide, starch= polysaccharide - Fiber: Complex, indigestible carbs that slow absorption, stimulate peristalsis, ↓ cholesterol absorption, reduce constipationAll have general format of CH2O, names end in –ose- #1 source of energy for most living things, provide structural support (plant cell walls), component of nucleic acids- 4 Calories= 1 g of sugar- Taste sweet & stimulate appetiteSugar classificationCarbs are described by # of carbon molecules in sugar - Triose: 3 carbons- Pentose: 5 carbons (Ribose)- Hexose: 6 carbons (Galactose)Carb StorageGlycogen (several glucose (monomer) molecules together-Polymer)- Stored in liver & muscles, otherwise, only small amounts stored in original form- Broken down to glucoseFat- Long-term energy storage (9 Calories per gram) that serves as insulation when food consumption exceeds energy needs- leads to obesity- Allow Vitamin absorption: Vitamin A, E, D, K only dissolve in fat- Pleasant feeling: fullness in stomachQuality- Refined flours & sugars= empty calories only providing energy- Whole grain flours & sugars= seeds, etc. & so are betterLipids- Nonpolar: Don’t dissolve in waterThree kinds: Phospholipids, steroids, triglycerides- Phospholipidso Complex organic molecules resembling fats, but have added phosphate groups- Steroidso Arranged in rings of carbono Often serve as hormones & regulate body processes (Testosterone, Estrogen)- Triglycerideso 1 glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acidsFats- Saturatedo No double bonds, found in animal products, solid @ room temperature- Unsaturatedo Double bonds, found in plant products, liquids (oils) at room temperature- Polyunsaturated: Several double bonds- Trans fats: Artificially created as unsaturated fats converted to saturated fats (lengthen shelf life) ProteinsPolymers made of amino acids (central carbon, amino(s), carboxyl(s), hydrogen~ 20 amino acids exist) joined by dehydration synthesis *Peptide bond: bond between amino acids- polypeptide chains: several amino acids togetherFunctions- Enzymes; make up connective tissue, muscles, skin, cell membranes; hormones; antibodies; sending & receiving signals; emergency energy source- Shape determines job: misshapen= will not work properlyo Ex: Sickle Cell Anemia: gene mutation misshapes protein & Denaturation: heat/environmental conditions break structure bondsKinds of Proteins- Structural: Maintain shape of cells- Ex: Collagen- Regulatory: Determine activities- Ex: Enzymes, chaperones, hormones- Carrier: Transport molecules- Ex: Lipoproteins- Complete: Contain all amino acids necessary for health- ex: most animal source proteins- Incomplete: Lack certain necessary amino acids - Essential: Cannot be made by human body & must be obtained by dietProtein Storage- Cannot be stored to be used for later (like fat)- Only need small amounts- 50 grams- Excess protein metabolized to provide